The particle and the interjection as parts of speech.

The conjunction.A conjunction is a word that connects other words or groups of words. In the sentence Bob and Dan are friends the conjunction and connects two nouns and in the sentence He will drive or fly, the conjunction or connects two verbs. In the sentence It is early but we can go, the conjunction but connects two groups of words. Coordinatingconjunctions are conjunctions which connect two equal parts of a sentence. The most common ones are and, or, but, and so which are used in the following ways: and is used to join or add words together in the sentence They ate and drank. or is used to show choice or possibilities as in the sentence He will be here on Monday or Tuesday. but is used to show opposite or conflicting ideas as in the sentence She is small but strong. so is used to show result as in the sentence I was tired so I went to sleep. Subordinating conjunctions connect two parts of a sentence that are not equal and will be discussed more in another class. For now, you should know some of the more common subordinating conjunctions such as: after before unless although if until as since when because than while. Correlative conjunctions are pairs of conjunctions that work together. In the sentence Both Jan and Meg are good swimmers, both . . .and are correlative conjunctions. The most common correlative conjunctions are: both . . .and either . . . or neither . . . nor not only . but also Position:Coordinating conjunctions always come between the words or clauses that they join.Subordinating conjunctions usually come at the beginning of the subordinate clause.Conjunctions have three basic forms:Single Word.for example: and, but, because, although.Compound.for example: provided that, as long as, in order that.Correlative(surrounding an adverb or adjective)for example: so...that.

The particle.In grammar, a particle is some kind of function word that is not inflected but lacks a precise lexical definition. Depending on the chosen definition, particles do or do not serve as a separate part of speech and are either distinct or not distinct from other classes of function words, such as articles, prepositions, conjunctions and adverbs. Particles are mostly words that help to encode grammatical categories (such as negation, mood or case), clitics or fillers or (oral) discourse markers such as well, um, etc. Particles are never inflected. Infinitival and adverbial particles: the infinitive to, as in to walk, although this can also be viewed as an integral part of the infinitive form of the verb; adverbial portions of phrasal verbs, such as off in we put it off too long, although these can also be viewed as adverbs or prepositions.Interjections, sentence connectors, and conjunctions:If a particle is defined simply to be any function word which cannot be inflected, then conjunctions, prepositions and interjections would be classed as particles (at least in English) although they are traditionally classed as separate parts of speech based on their function. The English definite article the would also be a particle as it is uninflected. The first grammatical construction in the English language that contains a p-word that functions as a particle is the phrasal verb. Phrasal verbs consist of a verb followed by one or more p-words. The p-word of a phrasal verb functions as a particle. Examples of phrasal verbs include the following:call off (cancel),lay in on (criticize).

Subject of syntax.

General characteristics of syntax.

The grammatical structure of language comprises two major parts – morphology and syntax. The two areas are obviously interdependent and together they constitute the study of grammar.

Morphology deals with paradigmatic and syntagmatic properties of morphological units – morphemes and words. It is concerned with the internal structure of words and their relationship to other words and word forms within the paradigm. It studies morphological categories and their realization.

Syntax, on the other hand, deals with the way words are combined. It is concerned with the external functions of words and their relationship to other words within the linearly ordered units – word-groups, sentences and texts. Syntax studies the way in which the units and their meanings are combined. It also deals with peculiarities of syntactic units, their behavior in different contexts.

Syntactic units may be analyzed from different points of view, and accordingly, different syntactic theories exist.

2. Kinds of syntactic theories.

Transformational-Generative Grammar.The Transformational grammar was first suggested by American scholar Zelling Harris as a method of analyzing sentences and was later elaborated by another American scholar Noam Chomsky as a synthetic method of ‘generating’ (constructing) sentences. The main point of the Transformational-Generative Grammar is that the endless variety of sentences in a language can be reduced to a finite number of kernels by means of transformations. These kernels serve the basis for generating sentences by means of syntactic processes. Different language analysts recognize the existence of different number of kernels (from 3 to 39). The following 6 kernels are commonly associated with the English language:

(1) NV – John sings.
(2) NVAdj. – John is happy.
(3) NVN – John is a man.
(4) NVN – John hit the man.
(5) NVNN – John gave the man a book.
(6) NVPrep.N – The book is on the table.

It should be noted that (3) differs from (4) because the former admits no passive transformation.
Transformational method proves useful for analysing sentences from the point of their deep structure:
Flying planes can be dangerous.

This sentence is ambiguous, two senses can be distinguished: a) the action of flying planes can be dangerous, b) the planes that fly can be dangerous. Therefore it can be reduced to the following kernels:

a) Planes can be dangerousb)Planes can be dangerous
X (people) fly planes X Planes fly

Constructional Syntax.Constructional analysis of syntactic units was initiated by Prof. G.Pocheptsov in his book published in Kyiv in 1971. This analysis deals with the constructional significance/insignificance of a part of the sentence for the whole syntactic unit. The theory is based on the obligatory or optional environment of syntactic elements. For example, the element himin the sentence I saw him there yesterday is constructionally significant because it is impossible to omit it. At the same time the elements thereand yesterdayare constructionally insignificant – they can be omitted without destroying the whole structure.

Communicative Syntax.It is primarily concerned with the analysis of utterances from the point of their communicative value and informative structure. It deals with the actual division of the utterance – the theme and rheme analysis. Both the theme and the rheme constitute the informative structure of utterances. The theme is something that is known already while the rheme represents some new information. Depending on the contextual informative value any sentence element can act as the theme or the rheme:
Who is at home? - John is at home. Where is John? – John is at home.

Pragmaticapproach to the study of syntactic units can briefly be described as the study of the way language is used in particular contexts to achieve particular goals. Speech Act Theory was first introduced by John Austin. The notion of a speech act presupposes that an utterance can be said with different intentions or purposes and therefore can influence the speaker and situation in different ways:

Accordingly, we can distinguish different speech acts.

Of special interest here is the problem of indirect speech acts: Are you leaving already?In our everyday activities we use indirect speech acts rather willingly because it is the best way to influence people, to get what we want and to be polite at the same time.

Textlinguistics studies the text as a syntactic unit, its main features and peculiarities, different ways of its analysis.

Discourse analysis focuses on the study of language use with reference to the social and psychological factors that influence communication.

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