ADJECTIVAL/ADVERBIAL AND VERBAL CHARACTERISTICS OF PARTICIPLE I

Verbm

Finite Forms (conjugated)

Non-Finite Forms (= Verbals = Verbids)

Infinitive	Gerund	Participle

VERBALS

Verbals include three non-finite forms of the verb: the infinitive, the gerund and the participle.

Unlike the finite forms of the verb, they do not express the grammatical categories of person, number and mood. Therefore they cannot be used as the predicate of the sentence.

The main characteristics of the verbals

1. Their syntactical functions differ from those of the finite verb and are typical of parts of speech other than the verb.

2. They are widely used in the so-called predicative constructions, consisting of two elements – nominal and verbal. The components are related to each other like the subject and the predicate of the sentence. They make up a syntactical unit (or a complex) treated as one part of the sentence.

3. Verbals have relative tense distinctions showing whether the action expressed by the verb is simultaneous with, or prior to the action expressed by the finite verb. Thus they have non-perfect and perfect forms.

4. They also express the category of voice represented by the opposition of activeand passive forms.

5. Like all other verbs, verbals takeobjects and are associated with adverbial modifiers.

FORMS OF VERBALS

PASSIVE VOICE	PERFECT	to have been written		having been written	having been written
NON-PERFECT	to be written		being written	being written
ACTIVE VOICE	PERFECT	to have written	to have been writing	having written	having written
NON-PERFECT	to write	to be writing	writing	writing
ASPECT	NON-CONTINUOUS	CONTINUOUS
	INFINITIVE	GERUND	PARTICIPLE

MEANING OF VERBALS

NOTE	After the verbs “remember”, “forget”, “forgive”, “thank” the NON-PERFECT GERUND is used in spite of the priority of its action to that of the finite verb. I remember going to the library once. Forgive me for takingso much of your time.	After the verb “be to”, “expect”, “hope”, “intend”, mean”, “ought”, “should”, the PERFECT INFINITIVE is used to denote an action which was not carried out. The concert was to have takenplace yesterday, but was postponed.	The verbs which cannot be used in the Continuous have no form of the Continuous Infinitive. The verbs which cannot be used in the Continuous have no form of the Perfect Continuous Infinitive.
EXAMPLE	1) I like playing chess. 2) He used to playchess in the evening. 3) He woke up early to play chess. 4) He sat playingchess. 5) Seeing us he stopped.	1) I am glad to have metthem. 2) I regret having wastedso much time. 3) They were, indeed, old friends, having beenat kindergarten together.	The students pretended to be listening. In fact they were sleeping. It seems to have been rainingfor ages.
MEANING	The NON-PERFECT Infinitive/Gerund/Participle I is used to denote: 1) a general action; 2) a repeated, habitual action; 3) an action which refers to the future; 4) an action which occurs simultaneously with that of the finite verb; 5) an immediate succession of the action in the sentence.	The PERFECT Infinitive/Gerund/Participle I is used to denote an action which is prior to that of the finite verb.	The CONTINUOUSInfinitive is used to denote an action in progress which occurs simultaneously with that of the finite verb. The PERFECT CONTINUOUSInfinitive is used to denote an action which lasted for a period of time before the action of the finite verb.

NOMINAL AND VERBAL CHARACTERISTICS OF INFINITIVE

	USAGE	EXAMPLES
NOMINAL	The Infinitive may function as: a) Subject b) Object c) Predicative	To study Dutch is my dream. I like to study Dutch. My dream is to study Dutch.
VERBAL	1.The Infinitive has categories of: a) Tense b) Voice c) Aspect	I’m happy to have met you. This article is sure to be published. He is said to be reading.
2. The Infinitive of a transitive verb may have a direct object.	I ‘m glad to see you.
3. The Infinitive may be modified by an adverb.	I like to readaloud.

NOMINAL AND VERBAL CHARACTERISTICS OF GERUND

	USAGE	EXAMPLES
NOMINAL	1. The Gerund may function as: a) Subject b) Object c) Predicative	Smoking destroys your health. I hate smoking. Your problem is smoking.
2. The Gerund can be preceded by a preposition.	I am afraid of skating.
3. The Gerund can be modified by a noun or a pronoun.	We insisted on John’scomingto Rio de Janeiro. We insisted on hiscomingas soon as possible.
VERBAL	1. The Gerund has categories of a) Tense b) Voice	She denied having spoken to them. Students like being askeda lot of questions.
2. The Gerund of a transitive verb may have a direct object.	All students enjoy writingtests.
3. The Gerund may be modified by an adverb.	I like readingaloud.

ADJECTIVAL/ADVERBIAL AND VERBAL CHARACTERISTICS OF PARTICIPLE I

	USAGE	EXAMPLES
ADJECTIVAL/ ADVERBIAL	1. Participle I may function as: a) Attribute b) Adverbial modifier	We looked at the barking dog. Answering my question he went out.
VERBAL	1. Participle I of a transitive verb may have a direct object.	Having read the novel I went to sleep.
2. Participle I may be modified by an adverb.	He sat reading aloud.
3. Participle I has categories of a) Tense b) Voice	Having spoken to him she went away. Being translated into many languages, the novel is known all over the world.

6. INFINITIVE WITHOUT THE PARTICLE “TO”

USAGE	EXAMPLES	NOTE
1. After modal verbs:	He may have come.
2. After the verbs of sense perception (in the Complex Object)	I didn’t notice you enter the room. I felt somebody knockat the door.	1. If the verb “to feel” expresses mental perception the particle “to” is used: I felt him to betrue. 2. The particle “to” is used in the Complex Subject: He was seen to enter the house.
3. After the verbs: to make to have (=to make) to know (=to experience) to let to bid	Don’t make me laugh. I will not have you behave like that. We have never known him losehis temperbefore. Let it be. The knight bade the travelers enter.	The particle “to” is used in the Passive Voice: He was made to laugh.
4. Sometimes after the verb to help.	John helped me mendmy bicycle.	The construction with the particle “to” is more formal.
5. After the expression: had better/best would rather/sooner cannot but do nothing but nothing to do but	You’d better go away. I’d rather stay here. I cannot but laugh.	The infinitive is part of the compound verbal predicate
She does nothing but makeplans We had nothing to do but wait.	The infinitive is an adverbial modifier of exception.
6. After why (not), how in rhetorical questions.	Why (not) gothere right away. How leaveher there?	In one-member sentences.
7. If the Infinitive expands the meaning of the verb to do.	All I did was (to) turn offthe gas. Turn off the gas was all I did.	The particle “to” is optional if the Infinitive is a predicative.
8. After than.	I have more important things to do, than (to) translatethis text.	The particle “to” is optional.

FUNCTIONS OF INFINITIVE

FUNCTION	CONJUNCTIONS	EXAMPLES
SUBJECT		To translate this text is easy. It is easy to translate this text.
PREDICATIVE		My dream is to translate this text.
PART OF PREDICATIVE		This text is easy to translate.
PART OF COMPOUND VERBAL MODAL PREDICATE		I can’t translate this text. You should have translated this text.
PART OF COMPOUND VERBAL ASPECT PREDICATE		He began (continued) ceased to translatethis text.
OBJECT		I plan to translatethis text. Are you glad to have translated this text?
ATTRIBUTE		He was the last to translate this text.
PARENTHESIS		To tell the truth, I am not ready with this text.
ADVERBIAL MODIFIER OF	PURPOSE	(in order), (so as), as if, etc.	She took a dictionary to translate this text.
RESULT	Too, enough, such … as, so … as	She was too busy to translatethis text. He was clever enoughto translatethis text. I am not such a fool as to translatethis text.
COMPARISON OR MANNER	than	You ought to know better than to translatetexts like that.
ATTENDANT CIRCUMSTANCES		He came to find that the text had already been translated. (=He came and found…)
CONDITION		He is a great translator. You wouldn’t believe it, to lookat him.
MOTIVATION OR REASON		She was silly to translate this text. (=She translated this text and it was silly of her.)
EXCEPTION	except, but, save	What could he do but translatethis text.
TIME		This translator lived to be ninety. (=till he was ninety.)
PART OF THE COMPLEX OBJECT		I don’t want youto translate this text.
PART OF THE COMPLEX SUBJECT		He is not expected to translate this text.

INFINITIVE AS ATTRIBUTE

USAGE

EXAMPLES

1. After nouns

The next thing to do is to see a movie.

2. After indefinite and negative pronouns and adverbs:

somebody	anybody	nobody
something	anything	nothing
someone	anyone	none
somewhere	anywhere	nowhere

She has nothing to do. There was nowhere to go. We have nobody to talk with.

3. After substantivized quantitative adjectives: much, little, more, less, enough

I have no more to add. Her knowledge leaves much to be desired.

4. Substativized ordinal numerals, the words next, last

He was the first to speak.

5. After the noun-substitute one

He was the one to ask.

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