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Продуктивные способы словообразования.





Комплексная цель: рассмотреть различные способы словообразования слов, выделить аффиксацию (суффиксацию и префиксацию), принципы классификации и их продуктивность, изучить конверсию как один из продуктивных способов словообразования в современном английском языке, различные подходы относительно сущности конверсии в различных частях речи, характерные черты конверсии в современном английском языке и ее высокую продуктивность, исследовать понятие субстантивации, семантические отношения между словами, соотносящимися по конверсии, выяснить определение и основные критерии сложных слов, проблему разграничения сложных слов и словосочетаний, образования типа give up, различные типы сокращений и аббревиатур и их функциональное использование, а также другие словообразовательные и словоразличительные средства.

Word-formationis the system of derivative types of words and the process of creating new words from the material available in the language after certain structural and semantic formulas and patterns. A distinction is made between two principal types of word-formation: word-derivation and word-composition.

The basic ways of forming words in word-derivationare affixation and conversion.

Affixationis the formation of a new word with the help of affixes, e.g. heartless (from heart), to overdo (from to do). Affixationis generally defined as the formation of words by adding derivational affixes to different types of stemps. Affixation includes suffixation and prefixation. Distinction between suffixal and prefixal derivatives is made according to the last stage of derivation. Suffixes usually modify the lexical meaning of the base and transfer words to a different part of speech.



Suffixes can be classified into different types in accordance with different principles.

1. According to the lexico-grammatical character of the base suffixes
are usually added to, they may be:

a) deverbal suffixes (those added to the verbal base), e.g. -er (speaker); -ing (reading);

b) denominal suffixes (those added to the nominal base), e.g. -less (endless); -ful (armful);

c) deadjectival suffixes (those added to the adjectival base), e.g. -en (widen); -ly (rapidly).

2. According to the part of speech formed suffixes fall into several
groups:

a) noun-forming suffixes: -age (breakage, bondage); -ance/-ence (assistance, reference); -dom (freedom, kingdom); -er (teacher, baker); -ess (lioness, actress); -ing (building, washing); -hood (manhood, childhood); -ness (tenderness, prettiness); -ship (relationship, partnership);

b) adjective-forming suffixes: -able/-ible/-uble (unbearable, audible, soluble); -al (formal, official); -ic (poetic); -ant/-ent (repentant, dependent); -ed (wooded, shaped); -ful (delightful, doubtful); -ish (reddish, bookish);

c) numeral-forming suffixes: -fold (twofold); -teen (fourteen); -th (seventh); -ty (sixty);

d)verb-forming suffixes: -ate (facilitate); -er (glimmer); -fy/-ify (terrify, speechify); -ize (equalize, harminize); -ish (establish);

e) adverb-forming suffixes: -ly (quickly, coldly); -ward/-wards (upward, northwards); -wise (likewise).

3. Semantically suffixes fall into:

a) monosemantic, e.g. the suffix -ess has only one meaning “female” — tigress, tailoress;



b) polysemantic, е.g., the suffix -hood has two meanings: 1) n “condition or quality” -falsehood, womanhood; 2) “collection or group” brotherhood.

4. According to their generalizing denotational meaning suffixes may
fall into several groups. For instance, noun-suffixes fall into those
denoting:

a) the agent of the action, e.g. -er (baker); -ant (assistant);

b)appurtenance, e.g. -an/-ian (Victorian, Russian); -ese (Chinese);

c) collectivity, e.g. -dom (officialdom); -ry (peasantry);

d)diminutiveness, e.g. -ie (birdie); -let (cloudlet); -ling (wolfling).

5. According to their stylistic reference suffixes may be classified into:
a)those characterized by neutral stylistic reference, e.g. –able (agree-able); -er (writer); -ing (meeting);

b)those having a certain stylistic value, e.g. -oid (asteroid); -tron
(cyclotron).
These suffixes occur usually in terms and are bookish.

Productive affixes are those used to form new words in the period in question.

Prefixationis the formation of words with the help of prefixes. Prefixes modify the lexical meaning of the base. They seldom shift words from one part of speech into another and therefore both the source word and its prefixed derivative mostly belong to the same part of speech, e.g. to rewrite < to write.

Prefixes can be classified according to different principles.

1. According to the lexico-grammatical character of the base prefixes
are usually added to, they may be:

a) deverbal (those added to the verbal base), e.g. re- (rewrite); over-(overdo); out- (outstay);

b)denominal (those added to the nominal base), e.g. un- (un­button); de- (detrain); ex- (ex-president);

c) deadjectival (those added to the adjectival base), e.g. un-
(uneasy); bi- (biannual).

2. According to the class of words they preferably form prefixes are
divided into:

a) verb-forming prefixes, e.g. en-/em (embed, enclose); be-(befriend); de- (dethrone);

b) noun-forming prefixes, e.g. поп- (non-smoker); sub- (sub­committee); ex- (ex-husband);

c) adjective-forming prefixes, e.g. un- (unfair); il- (illiterate); ir-(irregular).

d) adverb-forming prefixes, e.g. un- (unfortunately); up- (uphill).
3. Semantically prefixes fall into:

a) monosemantic, e.g. the prefix ex- has only one meaning 'former' — ex-boxer;

b) polysemantic, e.g. the prefix dis- has four meanings: 1) 'not' (disadvantage); 2) 'reversal or absence of an action or state' (dis­economy, disaffirm); 3) 'removal of (to disbranch); 4) 'completeness or intensification of an unpleasant action' (disgruntled).

4. According to their generalizing denotational meaning prefixes fall
into:

a)negative prefixes, e.g. un- (ungrateful); поп- (nonpolitical); in-(incorrect); dis- (disloyal); a- (amoral);



b)reversative prefixes, e.g. un2- (untie); de- (decentralize); dis2-(disconnect);

c) pejorative prefixes, e.g. mis- (mispronounce); mal- (maltreat); pseudo- (pseudo-scientific);

d)prefixes of time and order, e.g. fore- (foretell); pre- (pre-war); post- (post-war), ex- (ex-president);

e) prefix of repetition: re- (rebuild, rewrite);

f) locative prefixes, e.g. super- (superstructure), sub- (subway), inter- (inter-continental), trans- (transatlantic).

5. According to their stylistic reference prefixes fall into:

a) those characterized by neutral stylistic reference, e.g. over-(oversee); under- (underestimate); un- (unknown);

b) those possessing quite a definite stylistic value, e.g. pseudo-(pseudo-classical); super- (superstructure); ultra- (ultraviolet); uni-(unilateral); bi- (bifocal). These prefixes are of a literary-bookish character.

Derivatives are characterized by a specific com­ponent called a word-building meaning. The problem of the definition of a word-building meaning and the ways of its expression attracts the attention of many linguists. But there is a divergency of views as to the solution of this problem. We define a word-building meaning as a compo­nent of the lexical meaning of any derived word deter­mined by the type of the semantic relationship of a de­rived word and its base. As a rule, a word-building meaning is constituted on the basic meaning of the stem of a derived word. The semantics of a derived stem is of a paramount importance in forming the word-building meaning of a derived word.

In Modern English conversion is highly produc­tive in replenishing the word-stock with new words. The term conversion, which some linguists find inade­quate, refers to the numerous cases of phonetic and spelling identity of word-forms, primarily the so-called initial forms, of two and more words belonging to dif­ferent parts of speech. Conversion has been the subject of many linguis­tic discussions since 1891 when H. Sweet first used the term in A New English Grammar. Various opinions have been expressed on the nature and character of conversion in the English language, and different con­ceptions of conversion have been put forward. We share the point of view on conversion as a mor­phological-syntactic word-building means of a word of one part of speech from the stem or wordform of an­other part of speech by means of changing its paradigm (if any) and environment characteristic of a word of a definite part of speech. We stress that the basic form of the original and the basic forms of the derived words are always homonymous. It is not correct to divide conversion into full and partial. The so-called partially converted adjectives such as the poor, the rich, the wounded are real substantives formed by conversion5. This view has won the recog­nition of linguists both in Russia and abroad: the article of his was included into the bibliographical data of the most fundamental works on English word-formation over two centuries.

The main reason for the wide-spread development of conversion in present-day English is no doubt the absence of morphological elements serving as clas­sifying signals or, in other words, the absence of for­mal signs, in most cases marking the part of speech to which the word belongs. The majority of converted words be­longing to different parts of speech are words of tradi­tional conversion, they are recorded in dictionaries, e.g. to cook, to capture, to chair, to cage. The individual or occasional use of conversion is also very frequent; verbs and adjectives are converted from nouns and other parts of speech or vice versa for the sake of bringing out the meaning more vividly in a given con­text only. As a rule, the cases of individual coinage.serve the given occasion only and do not enter the vvord-stock of the English language. In Modern English usage we find many cases of occasional conversion such as to girl the boat; his guests had been washed, friended, brushed and brandid.

Word-composition is one of the highly productive types of word-formation in Modern English. In some manuals on English lexicology published in our coun­try composition is defined as a type of word-building in which new words are produced by combining two or more stems. I.V. Arnold writes: "Compound words are words consisting of at least two stems which occur in the language as free forms" .

But it is impossible to create a compound word by joining more than two stems because every derived or compound word may be divided only into two immedi­ate constituents. That is why any compound word is created by means of joining together only two stems which are free stems. Every free stem is homonymous to a separate word in the vocabulary. It is necessary to underline that free stems may be root stems, derived stems, compound stems and even compound deriva­tives. We understand compound words or compounds as words which are made up of two immediate con­stituents which are both derivational bases. The structural cohesion of a compound may depend on the unity of stress, solid or hyphenated spelling, semantic unity, unity of morphological and syntactic functioning, or, more often, on several of those factors. The integrity of a compound is mani­fested in its indivisibility.

Compound words can be classified according to different principles.

1. According to the relations between the ICs compound words fall
into two classes: 1) coordinative compounds and 2) subordinative compounds.

In coordinative compoundsthe two ICs are semantically equally important. The coordinative compounds fall into three groups:

a)reduplicative compounds which are made up by the repetition of the same base, e.g. pooh-pooh, fifty-fifty;

b)compounds formed by joining the phonically variated rhythmic twin forms, e.g. chit-chat, zig-zag (with the same initial consonants but different vowels); walkie-talkie, clap-trap (with different initial consonants but the same vowels);

c) additive compounds which are built on stems of the independently functioning words of the same part of speech, e.g. actor-manager, queen-bee.

In subordinative compoundsthe components are neither structurally nor semantically equal in importance but are based on the domination of the head-member which is, as a rule, the second 1С, e.g. stone-deaf, age-long. The second 1С preconditions the part-of-speech meaning of the whole compound.

2. According to the part of speech compounds represent they fall into:

1) compound nouns,e.g. sunbeam, maidservant;

2) compound adjectives,e.g. heart-free, far-reaching;

3) compound pronouns,e.g. somebody, nothing;

4) compound adverbs,e.g. nowhere, inside;

3. According to the means of composition compound words are
classified into:

1) compounds composed without connecting elements, e.g. Heartache, dog-house;

2) compounds composed with the help of a vowel or a consonant as linking element, e.g. handicraft, speedometer, statesman;

3) compounds composed with the help of linking elements
represented by preposition or conjunction stems, e.g. son-in-law, pepper-and-salt.

Shorteningis the formation of a word by cutting off a part of the word. According to the part of the word that is cut off (initial, middle or final) there are the following types of shortenings: 1) initial (apheresis), e.g. fend (v) < defend, phone < telephone; 2) medial (or syncope), e.g. specs < spectacles, fancy < fantasy; 3) final (or apocope), e.g. ad, advert < advertisement, veg < vegetables; 4) both initial and final, e.g. flu < influenza, fridge < refrigerator.

Blendingis the formation of a new word by combining parts of two words. Blends may be of two types: 1) additive type that may be transformed into a phrase consisting of complete stems combined by the conjunction and, e.g. smog smoke and fog; 2) restrictive type that can be transformed into a phrase, the first element of which serves as a modifier for the second, e.g.: telecast television broadcast.

Graphical abbreviationis the formation of a word from the initial letters of a word combination. There are two basic types of acronyms: 1) acronyms which are read as ordinary English words, e.g. UNESCO [ju: 'neskau] — the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization; 2) acronyms with the alphabetic reading, e.g. BBC ['bi: 'bi: 'si:] — the British Broadcasting Corporation.

Back-formationis the formation of a new word by subtracting a real or supposed suffix from the existing words. The process is based on analogy. For example, the word to butle 'to act or serve as a butler' is derived by subtraction of -er from a supposedly verbal stem in the noun butler.

Non-productive ways of forming words in the English language are sound-interchange, sound imitation, distinctive stress.

Sound-interchangeis the formation of a word due to an alteration in the phonemic composition of its root. Sound-interchange falls into two groups: 1) vowel-interchange (or ablaut).In some cases vowel-interchange is combined with suffixation: strong strength; 2) consonant-interchange: advice to advise.

Consonant-interchange and vowel-interchange may be combined together: life to live.

Sound imitation(or onomatopoeia)is the naming of an action or a thing by a more or less exact reproduction of the sound associated with it: cock-a-doodle-do (English) — ку-ка-ре-ку (Russian). Semantically, according to the source sound, many onomatopoeic words fall into a few very definite groups: 1) words denoting sounds produced by human beings in the process of communication or expressing their feelings, e.g. chatter, babble; 2) words denoting sounds produced by animals, birds, insects, e.g. moo, croak, buzz; 3) words imitating the sound of water, the noise of metallic things, a forceful motion, movements, e.g. splash, clink, whip, swing.

Distinctive stressis the formation of a word by means of the shift of the stress in the source word: 'increase (n) — in'crease (v), 'absent (adj)МОДУЛЬ 5.

 








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