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The Corpuscular Elements of Blood





The Heart and the Vascular System

The heart is an inner hollow muscular organ placed within the chest and included in the pericardium. The base of the heart is against the third rib. Its apex is against the interspaces between the fifth and sixth costal cartilages. The weight of the heart is about 300 grams in the male and about 220 gr. in the female.

The heart consists of two separate chambers divided by the septum. Each of the chambers has two connected parts: the atrium and the ventricle. The atrioventricular valves separate the atria from the ventricles.

The right atrium is larger than the left one, but the walls of the left atrium are thicker than those of the right one. The right ventricle is triangular (треугольный) in form and has thick walls. The right ventricle is the anterior part of the heart. The left ventricle is longer and more conical than the right one. The walls of the left ventricle are three times as thick as the walls of the right one. The valves are located at the entrance and exit of each ventricle.

The muscular structure of the heard consists of fibrous bands divided into two groups – the first ones are the fibrous bands of the atria and the second ones are the fibrous bands of the ventricles.

The vascular system consists of three groups of vessels—arteries, veins and capillaries.

The vessels carrying blood to and from the tissues of the body compose the general system. They are called the systemic vessels.

The pulmonary system is formed by the vessels carrying blood to and from the lungs.

The portal system is formed by the veins passing to the liver

Most of the arteries are composed of three coats. The arteries dilate and contract simultaneously with the action of the heart.

Task II. Insert the missing words:

1. The heart consists of …….. …….. …….. .

2. The muscular structure of the heard consists of …… ……. …….. .

3. The vascular system consists of …….. …….. …….. .



4. The systemic vessels are ……. . …… …… .

5. The arteries ……. … ……… …….. .

 

 

The lungs

The lungs are the main organs of the respiratory system. There are two lungs in the human body located in the lateral cavities of the chest. The lungs are separated from each other by the mediastinum. The lungs are covered with the pleura. They are conical in shape. Each lung has the base, apex, two borders and three surfaces.

The lung has the apex extending upward 3-4 centimetres (cm) above the level of the first rib.

The base of the lung is located in the convex (выпуклый) surface of the diaphragm.

The posterior borders of the lungs are on each side of the spinal column. The anterior border is thin and overlaps (перекрывать) the pericardium.

The weight of the lungs varies according to many conditions. In the adult male the weight of the lungs is about 1,350 gr. The right lung is about 15% heavier than the left one. The vital capacity of the lungs is 3.5-4 liters in the male and it is 3-3.5 liters in the female.

The right lung consisting of three lobes is heavier than the left one because the latter consists only of two lobes. The lower lobe of the left lung is larger than the upper one. In infants the lungs are of a pale rose colour, but later they become darker.

The structure of the lung consists of an external serous coat, the visceral layer of the pleura, a subserous elastic tissue and the parenchyma or proper substance of the lungs.

The aorta is the main vessel of the systemic arteries or the arteries of the general system. It begins at the upper part of the left ventricle, goes up, arches over the root (корень) of the left lung to the left side of the trunk at the level of the fourth thoracic vertebra. On its way from the fifth thoracic vertebra to about the level of the last thoracic vertebra it is called the thoracic aorta.



Then it goes down through the diaphragm. From the point of the last thoracic vertebra to the level of the fourth lumbar vertebra it is called the abdominal aorta.

It then goes to the border of the fourth lumbar vertebra and here it finishes dividing into the left and right iliac arteries.

 

Task II. Insert the missing words:

1. The lungs are …….. …….. .

2. The lung has …… ……… ……. .

3. The weight of the lungs varies according to ……. …….. …….. .

4. The aorta is …… …… ……. .

5. In infants the lungs are …… ……. ……. .

 

легкие

Легкие являются основными органов дыхательной системы. Есть два легких в организме человека находится в боковых полостях груди. Легкие отделены друг от друга с помощью средостении. Легкие покрыты плевры. Они конической формы. Каждое легкое имеет базовый, вершины, две границы и три поверхности.

Легких имеет вершину, проходящий вверх 3-4 сантиметров (см) выше уровня первого ребра.

Основание легких находится в выпуклая (выпуклый) поверхности диафрагмы.

Задние границы легких находятся на каждой стороне позвоночника. Передний край тонкий и перекрытия (перекрывать) перикард.

Вес легких варьируется в зависимости от многих условий. В взрослого мужчины вес легких составляет около 1350 гр. Правое легкое составляет около 15% тяжелее, чем левая. Жизненная емкость легких составляет 3,5-4 литров в мужских, и это 3-3,5 литра в самкой.

Правое легкое состоит из трех долей тяжелее, чем левая, потому что последний состоит только из двух долей.Нижняя доля левого легкого больше, чем верхний. У младенцев легкие из светло-розового цвета, но позже они становятся темнее.

Структура легких состоит из внешнего серозного слоя, висцеральной слоя плевры, в Субсерозный эластичной ткани и паренхимы или надлежащего вещества легких.



Аорта является главным сосудом системных артерий или артерий общей системе. Это начинается в верхней части левого желудочка, идет вверх, арки над корнем (корень) левого легкого к левой стороне туловища на уровне четвертого груднотго позвонка. На своем пути от пятого грудного позвонка до примерно уровне последнего грудного позвонка его называют грудной аорты.

Затем он идет вниз через диафрагму. С точки последнего грудного позвонка на уровне четвертого поясничного позвонка его называют брюшной аорты.

Затем он идет к границе четвертого поясничного позвонка и вот он заканчивает деления на левых и правых подвздошных артерий.

 

Задача II. Вставьте пропущенные слова:

1. Легкие ...... .. ...... ...

2. легких имеет ...... ......... ....... ,

3. вес легких варьируется в зависимости от ....... ...... .. ...... ...

4. аорта ...... ...... ....... ,

5. У детей легкие ...... ....... ....... ,

 

The Alimentary Tract

The alimentary tract is a musculomembraneous canal about 8 m (meters) in length. It extends from the oral cavity to the anus. It consists of the mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, and large intestine. The liver with gallbladder and pancreas are the large glands of the alimentary tract.

The first division of the alimentary tract is formed by the mouth. Important structures of the mouth are the teeth and the tongue, which is the organ of taste. The soft and hard palates and the salivary glands are also in the oral cavity.

From the mouth food passes through the pharynx to the esophagus and then to the stomach.

The stomach is a dilated portion of the alimentary canal. It is in the upper part of the abdomen under the diaphragm. It measures about 21-25 cm in length,8-9 cm in its greatest diameter .It has a capacity of from 2.14 to 4.25 1(liters).

The small intestine is a thin-walled muscular tube about 6.5 meters long. It is located in the lower and central portions of the abdominal and pelvis cavities. The small intestine is composed of the duodenum, jejunum and ileum.

The large intestine is about1.5 meters long. It is divided into caecum, colon and rectum.

The liver is the largest gland in the human body. It is in the right upper part of the abdominal cavity under the diaphragm. The liver is in the right side of the abdomen. The weight of the liver is 1.500 g.

The gallbladder is a hollow sac (мешок) lying on the lower surface of the liver.

The pancreas is a long thin gland lying under and behind the stomach.

 

Task II. Insert the missing words:

1. The pancreas is …… …… ……. .

2. Alimentary tract consists of ….. ….. ….. ….. .

3. Important structures of the mouth are …. ….. ….. …. .

4. The small intestine is …… …… …… .

5. The large glands of the alimentary tract are …. ….. ….. .

 

 

Пищеварительного тракта

Желудочно-кишечного тракта является musculomembraneous канал около 8 м (метров) в длину. Он простирается от полости рта до ануса. Он состоит из рта, глотки, пищевода, желудка, тонкой кишки, и толстой кишки. Печень с желчным пузырем и поджелудочной железы являются крупные железы пищеварительного тракта.

Первый разделение желудочно-кишечного тракта формируется во рту. Важные структуры полости рта являются зубы и язык, который является органом вкуса. Мягкие и жесткие вкусы и слюнные железы также в полости рта.

Из полости рта пища проходит через глотку в пищевод, а затем в желудок.

Желудок дилатационная часть пищеварительного канала. Именно в верхней части брюшной полости под диафрагмой. Он измеряет около 21-25 см в длину, 8-9 см в наибольшего диаметра Она имеет емкость от 2,14 до 4,25 1 (литры).

Тонкая кишка является тонкостенные мышечная трубка длиной около 6,5 метров. Он расположен в нижней и центральной частях живота и таза полостей. Тонкая кишка состоит из двенадцатиперстной кишки, тощей кишки и подвздошной кишки.

Толстая кишка длинная about1.5 метров. Он разделен на слепой кишки, ободочной и прямой кишки.

Печень является крупнейшим железы в организме человека. Именно в правой верхней части брюшной полости под диафрагмой. Печень находится в правой части живота.Вес печени является 1,500 г.

Желчного пузыря представляет собой полый мешок (мешок), лежащей на нижней поверхности печени.

Поджелудочная железа является длинный тонкий железы лежит под и позади желудка.

 

Задача II. Вставьте пропущенные слова:

1 Поджелудочная железа ...... ...... ....... ,

2 влияющие на пищеварительную систему состоит из ... .. ... .. ... .. ... ...

3. Важные структуры рта .... ... .. ... .. .... ,

4 тонкой кишки ...... ...... .......

5. Большие железы пищеварительного тракта являются .... ... .. ... ...

 

 

Work of the human heart

The human heart contracts from the first moment of life until the last. The contractions of the heart pump the blood through the arteries to all the parts of the body. Scientists have determined that the total weight of the blood pumped by the heart daily is about ten tons.

The rate of heart contractions is regulated by two groups of nerve fibers. It varies in different persons and at different age.

Physiologists have established that in the adult the heart makes from 60 to 72 beats per minute. In children the rate of heart beat is much higher. Research work of many scientists has helped to determine that the rate of heartbeat increases depending on different emotions.

Each beat of the heart is followed by a period of rest for the cardiac muscle. Each wave of contraction and a period of rest following it compose a cardiac cycle.

Research work has given physiologists the possibility to find out that the heart muscle works or contracts about one third of the time of the person’s life. The rest period is shorter during greater physical exertion and longer when the body is at rest.

Each cardiac cycle consists of three phases: physiologists have called the first phase of short contraction of both atria- the atrial systole. They have called the second phase of a more prolonged contraction of both ventricles – the ventricular systole. The period of rest of the cardiac muscle is called the diastole.

The left ventricle discharges out the blood received by the left atrium from the pulmonary circulation through the aorta to the systemic circulation.

The blood received from the systemic circulation by the right atrium is discharged out of the right ventricle to the lungs through the pulmonary arteries.

Prolonged research work of many physiologists has given the possibility to estimate the role of the ventricles which serve as the main pump. The atria act as receiving chambers. The contraction of the atria which sends the final portion of the blood into the ventricle is considerably less.

Task II. Insert the missing words:

1. The human_____ contracts from the first moment of life until the last.

2. The rate of heart ______is regulated by two groups of nerve fibers.

3. It varies in different _______ and at different age.

4. The contraction of ______ which sends the final portion of the blood into the ventricle is considerably less.

5. Prolonged research work of many physiologists has given the possibility to estimate the role of_______ which serve as the main pump.

The circulation of blood

Now we know that the venous blood from the systemic and portal circulation is brought to the right atrium of the heart. When the pressure in the right atrium has increased the blood passes into the right ventricle from the right atrium.

During the systole of the ventricle the blood is pumped from the right ventricle into the pulmonary artery. When the right ventricle has pumped the venous blood into the pulmonary artery it enters the pulmonary circulation. The blood is brought to the lungs through the pulmonary artery. In the lungs the venous blood discharges out carbon dioxide. When the blood has discharged out carbon dioxide it takes in oxygen in the lungs.

The blood which has become oxygenated passes from the venous part of the pulmonary capillary system into the venules and veins. When the oxygenated blood has passed the four pulmonary veins it is brought to the left atrium of the heart. Under the pressure in the left atrium the arterial blood which the pulmonary veins have brought to the heart is pumped into the left ventricle. During the prolonged contraction of the left ventricle, the so-called ventricular systole, the arterial blood is pumped into the aorta-the main artery of the vascular system. When the left ventricle has pumped the arterial blood into the aorta it is carried through the arteries to all the parts of the body.

Task II. Insert the missing words:

1. When the pressure in______ has increased the blood passes into the right ventricle from the right atrium.

2. When the blood has _______ carbon dioxide it takes in oxygen in the lungs.

3. When the ________ has passed the four pulmonary veins it is brought to the left atrium of the heart.

4. Under the pressure in ________the arterial blood which the pulmonary veins have brought to the heart is pumped into the left ventricle.

5. When the______ has pumped the arterial blood into the aorta it is carried through the arteries to all the parts of the body.

 

 

The Corpuscular Elements of Blood

Blood is a fluid tissue with many various functions. Not only important physiological process takes place in the blood but it determines the activity of widely separated body cells.

Blood is composed of plasma and the corpuscular elements which are called red corpuscles or erythrocytes, white cor­puscles or leucocytes and blood platelets or thrombocytes.

It is generally considered that no sex differences exist in the count of white corpuscles or leucocytes. The count of leucocytes in the blood of a healthy person is 4,500 to 9,500 per cu mm (cubic millimetre). When the number of white blood cells (WBC) is counted after mental or physical exertion, meals and mild activity it may increase to 10,000 and more per cu mm.

It is estimated that the erythrocytes are the most numer­ous cellular elements, ranging from 4,000,000 to 5,000,000 per cu mm. The red blood cell count (RBC) may change with age; when the red blood cell count is done after phys­ical exertion and emotions it may increase.

One knows that red corpuscles have two physical fea­tures which are very important in the function of respiration. They have great elasticity and flexibility. These features give them the possibility to pass through very small capil­laries. The discoid form of the corpuscle gives it a maxim­al surface for a given mass.

The most important part of the red cell is its red coloring substance or hemoglobin which on an average forms about 36% of its mass.

The total blood volume is divided into circulating and reservoir volumes.

The average human blood volume is not less than 7.5% but not more than 10% of the body weight. It is generally stated that the circulating volume averages smaller in the females than in the males. The circulating volume of the blood depends on the changes of the air temperature.

Task II. Insert the missing words:

 

1. Blood is a _______ tissue with many various functions.

2. It is generally considered that no sex differences _____ in the count of white corpuscles or leucocytes.

3. They have great ______ and flexibility.

4. The total blood volume is divided into ______ and reservoir volumes.

5. The circulating _______of the blood depends on the changes of the air temperature

 

 

The brain

Scientists consider that our brain is the most complicated mechanism which has ever been constructed.

The weight of the human brain is from one to two kg (kilograms). It has a volume of only about 3.21 liters, but it consists of about 12 billion cells. It has been determined by the scientists that each cell is connected to every other directly or indirectly by nerve fibers.

The brain is the center of a wide system of communication. It has been found out that a constant flow of stimuli comes into the brain through the spinal cord. These stimuli come to the brain from our eyes, ears, and other sense organs for pain, temperature, smell and other feelings. When all the received stimuli have been summarized and analyzed the brain sends orders through the nerve fibers in the spinal cord to different parts of the human body. It is due to these orders that one eats, moves, hears, sees and does many other things.

To estimate the functions of different areas of the brain many experiments have been carried out by the investigators. It is due to such experiments that the investigators have been able to determine those areas of the brain which control vision, hearing, physical movements and even emotions.

Due to experimental studies it has been determined that the motor cortex controlling many body movements of the human being becomes tired rapidly. But the hypothalamus which controls such functions as blood pressure is almost never tired.

 








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