Environmental Health Department

Содержание

1. Air Pollution Levels………………………………………………………5

2. Road Transport……………………………………………………………6

3. Air Pollution Sources……………………………………………………..7

4. Aviation Pollution………………………………………………………...9

5. Car Pollution…………………………………………………………….14

6. Fireworks………………………………………………………………..23

7. Garden Bonfires…………………………………………………………28

8. What’s the alternative?..............................................................................29

9. Bonfires and the law…………………………………………………….29

10. Bonfire guidelines……………………………………………………….31

11. Light Pollution………………………………………………………….32

12. Low Frequency Noise…………………………………………………..38

13. Managing Transport Noise……………………………………………...41

14. Assessing Exposure – Strategic Noise Mapping………………………..42

15. Noise Maps for England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland……….44

16. Noise Action Planning in the UK……………………………………….47

17. What Can You Do?...................................................................................49

18. Ozone Pollution…………………………………………………………50

19. Particles…………………………………………………………………54

20. Using Wood and Coal for Home Heating……………………………….59

21. What is Contaminated Land?....................................................................63

22. Reducing Acid Rain……………………………………………………..66

23. Guide to Air Cleaners…………………………………………………...71

24. Carbon Monoxide (CO)…………………………………………………80

25. Greenhouse Gas Emissions……………………………………………...83

26. Climate Change − Health and Environmental Effects…………………...87

27. Basic Information about Wood Waste…………………………………...91

28. Household Hazardous Waste…………………………………………….92

29. Recycling……………………………………………………………….95

30. Reduce & Reuse………………………………………………………..97

Air Pollution Levels

National Air Quality Strategy.The National Air Quality Strategy for England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland sets out UK air quality standards and objectives for reducing levels of health-threatening pollutants. These include benzene, 1.3-butadiene, carbon monoxide, lead, nitrogen dioxide, particles, sulphur dioxide, ground level ozone, and PAH. The levels of reduction have been set on the basis of scientific and medical evidence on the health effects of each pollutant, and according to practicability of meeting standards. All of these standards, except those for ozone and polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAH), are subject to regulations made under the Environment Act 1995, and many are the result of UK incorporation of European law.

Local Air Quality Management. The Environment Act 1995, which covers England, Scotland and Wales, and the Environment (Northern Ireland) Order 2002, requires all local authorities in the UK to review and assess air quality in their area. If any standards are being exceeded or are unlikely to be met by the required date, then that area should be designated an Air Quality Management Area (AQMA) and the local authority must draw up and implement an action plan aimed at reducing levels of the pollutant. Local authorities are required to make copies of their reviews and assessments of local air quality available to the public, as well as any orders designating an AQMA, and to consult locally on the action plan. In many areas, traffic is likely to be the main contributor to excessive levels of pollution.

Bye Laws. Some local authorities have adopted specific bye laws to control sources of air pollution and nuisance. However, these can be hard to enforce as surveillance is often difficult and the culprit hard to track down. Often the nuisance has ceased by the time an official can get to the scene.

Air quality and climate. Air is the mixture of gases that we breathe. Good air quality is essential for our health, quality of life and the environment. Air becomes polluted when it contains substances which can have a harmful effect on the health of people, animals and vegetation. Many of our everyday activities – for example driving, cooking, using the computer – consume energy and can cause pollution.

(http://www.environmental-protection.org.uk/information/air-pollution-levels)

Road Transport

Exhaust Emissions.The Road Vehicles (Construction and Use) Regulations govern the standards to which new motor vehicles must be manufactured, including standards for exhaust emissions. Vehicle exhaust testing has been included in the annual MOT since 1991. The Vehicle & Operator Services Agency (VOSA) carries out roadside tests on heavy goods vehicles and can ban further use of a smoking vehicle until it has been adjusted or repaired. However, only the police have the powers to stop a vehicle on the road if it is producing so much smoke as to be a hazard to other drivers.

You can report smoky buses, coaches and lorries to the Vehicle and Operator Services Agency (VOSA) (0870 606 0440). Following a complaint the operator is notified and requested to clean up their vehicle. There is no mechanism for reporting privately owned vehicles.

Fixed Penalty Notices.Where an AQMA has been declared, local authorities in England and Wales can apply for powers to carry out roadside emissions testing under the Road Traffic (Vehicle Emissions) (Fixed Penalty) (England) Regulations 2002 and the Road Traffic (Vehicle Emissions) (Fixed Penalty) (Wales) Regulations 2003. In Scotland all local authorities have these powers available to them, under the Road Traffic (Vehicle Emissions) (Fixed Penalty) (Scotland) Regulations 2003.

Authorised and adequately trained persons can then carry out an emissions test on a vehicle being driven through, or about to pass through, an AQMA and if an offence has been committed a fixed penalty of £60 can be issued. A driver can also be required to submit their vehicle to a test and to produce a test certificate. If the fixed penalty is not paid within the given timeframe it can rise to £90.

Stationary Idling. Fixed penalty notices of £20 can also be issued by an authorised local authority officer in England, Wales and Scotland to motorists who leave their engines running unnecessarily (e.g. waiting outside school/station), having asked them to switch them off. This rises to £40 if it is not paid within the given timeframe.

Leaded Fuel.All new petrol vehicles now run on unleaded fuel and the sale of leaded petrol was banned in January 2000. For the small amount of older vehicles that will not run on unleaded fuel, special lead replacement petrol is available from some filling stations. Petrol producers and importers wishing to make leaded petrol available for use in classic and historic vehicles must apply for a permit from the Department for Transport.

(http://www.environmental-protection.org.uk/information)

Air Pollution Sources

Particulate Matter (PM10 and PM2.5).The principal source of particulate matter in European cities is road traffic emissions, particularly from diesel vehicles. It is also emitted from industrial combustion plants and public power generation, commercial and residential combustion, and some non-combustion processes (e.g. quarrying). Natural sources include volcanoes and dust storms, but these produce only a small percentage of fine particulate matter. Levels are highest in urban areas as it is a traffic-related pollutant.

Particulate matter is categorised according to its size in micrometers. PM10 refers to particles under 10 micrometers, sometimes called the ‘coarse fraction’. PM2.5 refers to particles under 2.5 micrometers, sometimes called the ‘fine fraction’. PM2.5 is thought to be more damaging to human health than PM10.

Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2).Nitric oxide (NO) is produced during high temperature burning of fuel (e.g. road vehicles, heaters and cookers). When this mixes with air, NO2 is formed. Levels are highest in urban areas as it is a traffic-related pollutant.

Ozone (O3).Ground level ozone is a secondary pollutant; it is formed through a chemical reaction of volatile organic compounds and nitrogen dioxide in the presence of sunlight, so levels are higher in the summer. The highest levels tend to be found in rural areas downwind of urban or industrial areas.

Sulphur Dioxide (SO2).Fossil fuel combustion (principally power stations), conversion of wood pulp to paper, manufacture of sulphuric acid, smelting, incineration of refuse. The most common natural source is volcanoes.

Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs).Benzene. The main source of atmospheric benzene in Europe is petrol vehicles, which accounts for about 70% of emissions. Another 10% comes from the distillation, refining and evaporation of petrol from vehicles.

Other VOCs play a role in the photochemical formation of ozone in the atmosphere.

1.3-Butadiene. The main source of 1.3-Butadiene is also principally from road traffic, in the combustion process of petrol and diesel vehicles. Unlike benzene it is not a constituent of fuel but is produced through the combustion of olefins. An additional source is from industrial processes such as synthetic rubber manufacture.

Carbon Monoxide (CO).CO forms when carbon fuels are burned, either in the presence of too little oxygen or at too high a temperature. One of the main causes is idling vehicle engines and vehicle deceleration. Smaller amounts are released into the atmosphere from organic combustion in waste incineration and power station processes. Levels are highest in urban areas due to its close association with road traffic. However, in the UK levels are generally low, well below the targets set by the Government.

Lead (Pb).As much of the airborne emission of lead originates from road traffic, concentrations are decreasing with most cars running on unleaded and lead replacement petrol. Other sources of lead pollutants include waste incineration and metal processing. The largest industrial use is manufacturing batteries.

Toxic Organic Micro-Pollutants (TOMPs).PAHs (Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons), PCBs (Polychlorinated Biphenyls), Dioxins, Furans

Produced by the incomplete combustion of fuels, road transport and industrial plant are the largest source. Open burning is a major source in the UK and comparatively large amounts are released on and around bonfire night. Tobacco smoke is also a source.

(http://www.environmental-protection.org.uk/air-pollution-sources)

Aviation Pollution

In 2006, approximately 240 million passengers passed through mainland UK airports – an increase of 30% over the past five years. Government forecasts predict that by 2020 this will increase to 400 million passengers. Airports handled 2 million tonnes of freight. Airport operations are an important factor in our economy − for tourism, imports, exports and business. However, these benefits must be weighed against the impact air travel is having on the quality of life of increasing numbers of people and on the local and global environment. Noise and air pollution − from both aircraft and the ground operations that service airports are an increasing problem for those who live, work and study around airports.

The most immediate impact of aircraft is noise − whether it is the regular rumble of international jets or the buzz of microlights and light aircraft on sunny afternoons. The noise from aircraft is related to air speed. Any fast moving components − like propellers and compressor blades − generate noise, as do the exhaust gases of jets. Aircraft are also responsible for an increasing proportion of air pollution, both at local and global level.

Aviation noise.The International Civil Aviation Organisation (ICAO) is responsible for drawing up aviation noise standards with the European Civil Aviation Conference, and UK standards are set in accordance with these.

Currently the Government only has direct responsibility for aircraft noise management at Heathrow, Gatwick and Stansted. Measures introduced to reduce noise include Noise Preferential Routes and restrictions on night flying. Maximum noise limits for departing aircraft are set and monitored and noise insulation schemes operate. Noise from aircraft on the ground is the responsibility of the airport management company. To comply with the EU Environmental Noise Directive, operators of airports with over 50,000 movements a year are responsible for drawing up Noise Action Plans by 18th July 2008 (Under criteria set for this 15 airports are designated in England, 3 in Scotland and one in N Ireland).

Noise limits have been introduced at the designated airports to cover the period 0700 − 2300. Airport companies are responsible for monitoring compliance and breaches are subject to a financial penalty. Night flights are restricted between 2300 – 0600 and airports are given quotas of the number of night movements of noisier aircraft allowed to land during these periods.

Environmental Protection UK believe that any developments or alterations to the UK aviation infrastructure, air operations or flight scheduling, should not result in an increase to the night time or day time noise exposure of either the general population or of individual communities. Where an increase in exposure is unavoidable, a full package of mitigation measures should be offered to those affected, and the costs of such measure should be met by the aviation industry.

Air quality.Fuel combustion in aircraft engines is efficient and jet exhausts are almost smoke free, however pollutant emissions from aircraft at ground level are increasing with airport movements. In addition, a large amount of air pollution around airports is also generated by surface traffic.

Nitrogen Oxides (NOx) in the lower atmosphere (troposphere) are a pollutant in themselves and also contributes to the production of ozone, which, in the troposphere, is a pollutant and contributes to global warming. Nitrogen oxides from high flying supersonic aircraft are thought to damage the stratospheric ozone layer, the protective layer that filters out harmful radiation from the sun. With the decommissioning of Concorde however this is not currently an issue for civil aviation.

The International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) sets international standards for smoke and certain gaseous pollutants for newly produced large jet engines; they also prohibit the venting of raw fuels. The latest standards came into effect in 1999, and apply to engines certified after this date.

No developments or alterations to the UK aviation infrastructure, air operations or flight scheduling should result in a breach of the UK Air Quality Objectives, or worsen current breaches. Emissions must include direct emissions from aircraft, “air-side” service vehicles, and the surface access required for airports.

Aviation is also a significant source of carbon dioxide emissions, and presents a major threat in terms of emissions growth. This is for three reasons, firstly aviation is a rapidly growing sector, secondly emission sat altitude however are thought to have a 2-3 times greater effect on climate change than those at ground level, and finally there is no practical alternative to kerosene fuelled jet engines currently on the horizon. As other sectors reduce emissions aviation is therefore likely to become responsible for a far larger proportion of global CO2 emissions.

Addressing aviation pollution.Environmental Protection UK is concerned at the potential impact of the apparent ‘predict and provide’ approach that is being taken to air travel in the UK and we would like to see the environmental impacts caused by an expansion reduced or avoided.

We would like to see aviation policies developed in a way which is consistent with the approach used for other transport sectors, and aviation should be fully bedded into an integrated transport policy, rather than being treated as a separate case.

The Government should also seek to reduce the environmental and social harm arising from aviation through a balanced programme of progressive introduction of improved technology, better operational practice, and demand management.

Where new infrastructure is required, or where existing capacity is expanded, the mitigation of further environmental and social harm should be seen as a key priority.

Action to reduce the environmental and social harm caused by aviation will require international cooperation. The Government should adopt a leading and active role in international debate, particularly within the European Union, and should encourage the development of radical and innovative solutions.

Surface access.Planning development to meet the projected increased demand in passenger air traffic is also a cause for concern. For example, a study at Gatwick predicted that NOx emissions from cars could decrease due to cleaner vehicles, but emissions from aircraft are expected to increase. This would result in the National Air Quality Standard for NO2 being exceeded in nearby towns. Increasing capacity in more rural areas will lead to the erosion of tranquillity, loss of habitats for wildlife and increased surface traffic.

The environmental impact of aviation must include the impact of surface access to airports, and given that passengers, employees and goods often travel considerable distances to reach certain airports, this must be considered across the widest possible geographical context.

And where any airport infrastructure development occurs, either as new build or extension to existing infrastructure, surface access infrastructure must be planned, funded and delivered as an integral and wholly necessary part of the project. It should therefore be a condition of any new airport infrastructure development that the necessary surface access infrastructure be in place in its entirety before the airport facility comes into use.

Cost and taxation.Under international law aviation fuel for international flights is exempt from taxation, which means air travel is relatively cheap. This also limits incentive for airlines to invest in more efficient aircraft. Airlines can be incentivised via fuel tax (which can be levied for domestic flights), inclusion in a carbon emissions trading scheme or other taxes (e.g. Air Passenger Duty). These measures can:

Ensure airlines pay for the pollution they cause, like other transport operators

Encourage the development of more fuel-efficient aircraft

Help reduce the demand for air travel as other options become more competitive

Be consistent with UK pledges to reduce greenhouse gas emissions from airport operations

Policy should progressively seek an equitable cost/taxation basis across all modes of transport. In particular, all possible attempts should be made to ensure that the costs of aviation fully include the environmental and social costs, in accordance with the “polluter pays” principle.

The Government should also acknowledge the fact that the tax free status of aviation fuel effectively acts as a subsidy for the aviation industry, and should therefore fully factor this into its economic analysis of the costs and impacts of the industry.

(http://www.environmental-protection.org.uk/aviation-pollution)

Car Pollution

Road transport is one of the biggest sources of pollution in the UK, contributing to poor air quality, climate change, congestion and noise disturbance. Of the 33 million vehicles on our roads, 27 million are cars. Whilst travel by car is often the only practicable option, there are simple steps we can all take to reduce the number of journeys we take and their impact on the environment.

Impacts of car pollution. Climate Change.Road transport accounts for 22% of total UK emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2) – the major contributor to climate change. The EU has agreements with motor manufacturers that aim to reduce average CO2 emissions from new cars. Colour-coded labels, similar to those used on washing machines and fridges, are now displayed in car showrooms showing how much CO2 new models emit per kilometre. However, as traffic levels are predicted to increase, road transport will continue to be a significant contributor to greenhouse gas emissions.

Air Quality.Air pollutants from transport include nitrogen oxides, particles, carbon monoxide and hydrocarbons. All have a damaging impact on the health of people, animals and vegetation locally. Air quality in the UK is slowly improving, but many areas still fail to meet the health based national air quality objectives and European limit values – particularly for particles and nitrogen dioxide. In town centres and alongside busy roads, vehicles are responsible for most local pollution. Vehicles tend to emit more pollution during the first few miles of journey when their engines are warming up. Although new technology and cleaner fuel formulations will continue to cut emissions of pollutants, the increasing number of vehicles on the road and miles driven is eroding these benefits.

Noise.Noise from road traffic affects 30% of people in the UK. Sources include engine noise, tyre noise, car horns, car stereos, door slamming, and squeaking brakes. Vehicles have been subject to noise standards for many years through EU legislation. The sound of engines is a problem in towns and cities, while in more rural areas tyre noise on busy roads, which increases with speed, is the main source. Low-noise road surfaces, effective noise barriers in sensitive locations, and low noise tyres can all help reduce noise levels. Meanwhile, encouraging people to close car windows when playing loud music, and discouraging the use of 'boom box' car stereos would significantly reduce noise impact.

Resource Use.Vehicles have a major impact on the environment through their construction, use and eventual disposal. It is estimated that of the CO2 emissions produced over a car's lifespan 10% come from its manufacture and 5% from its disposal, with the remaining 85% coming from fuel use and servicing operations. In addition to these emissions of carbon dioxide and other air pollutants, the vehicle and related industries (e.g. fuels) consume large amounts of raw materials, and produce significant quantities of waste.

Local Impacts.Vehicle use affects our whole quality of local life. Traffic can be dangerous and intimidating, dividing communities and making street life unpleasant. Abandoned vehicles cause nuisance, whilst air pollution and traffic noise can make urban living uncomfortable.

What are the Government doing to reduce car pollution? Climate Change.In addition to the EU's voluntary agreements with motor manufacturers and the introduction of colour-coded CO2 labels in showrooms, the UK Government has introduced financial measures to favour cars with lower CO2 emissions.

Since March 2001 the annual Vehicle Excise Duty (VED) rate for new cars has been determined by their CO2 emission figure and the type of fuel used. This banding is linked to the voluntary colour coded CO2 A − G labelling scheme. Band ‘G’ was recently introduced but only applies to new cars registered on or after 23 March 2006. VED discounts are available for alternatively fuelled cars, e.g. hybrids, gas and biofuels.

Since 2002 company car drivers have been taxed according to their vehicle's CO2 emissions and fuel type, again with diesel vehicles paying a tax penalty over petrol vehicles with similar CO2 emissions. Tax discounts are available for drivers choosing bio-fuel and hybrid electric vehicles.

On the fuels side, a Renewable Transport Fuels Obligation has been introduced which requires 5% of road fuels to come from a renewable source by 2010. This may be sold as a separate fuel (e.g. ‘E85’) or blended into normal diesel and petrol at low percentages (5% or less).

The European Union has now agreed a mandatory CO2 target for car manufactures. Under this legislation the average emissions of a manufacture's vehicles sold in Europe will have to be below 130 grams of CO2 per kilometre by 2015.

Air Quality.The Government set out targets for improving air quality standards, based on health implications, in the UK Air Quality Strategy in 2007. In areas where national objectives for air quality are likely to be exceeded, local authorities must declare an Air Quality Management Area (AQMA) and an action plan must be drawn up and implemented. Your local authority environmental health department should be able to advise you on air quality in your area and any plans for improvement.

In some areas authorised officers of the local authority can check that emissions from road vehicles comply with Construction and Use Regulations and issue fixed penalty notices to those failing the test. In England and Wales, only those local authorities that have declared an AQMA may apply to use this power, but Scottish Regulations enable all local authorities to apply to use them. Drivers who leave their engines running unnecessarily, e.g. while waiting at a level crossing, can also be issued with a fixed penalty notice if they do not turn off their engine when asked by an authorised officer.

What are the laws on car pollution? Emission Standards.All new cars must comply with strict EU vehicle emission standards, known as Euro standards. Four pollutants are covered: carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons, nitrogen oxides, and particulate matter (diesel vehicles only at present). These maximum permitted emissions are gradually being tightened up − Euro IV came in on 1 January 2006 and will be followed by Euro V (2009) and Euro VI (2014). Second-hand cars will meet earlier standards and the older your car, the more polluting it is likely to be.

As part of the annual MoT test vehicles have to pass an exhaust emissions test, with the standards based on the vehicle’s age and type of engine.

What Can I Do to Reduce Car Pollution?Follow the checklist to ensure you minimise your impact:

Avoid using cars for short journeys – combine trips or, alternatively, walk, cycle, or take a bus.

Care for your vehicle – check tuning, tyre pressure, brakes and fuel consumption – regular servicing helps keep your car efficient and saves fuel.

Lighten up – roof racks add drag and other unnecessary weight increases fuel consumption.

When your tyres need replacing consider low rolling resistance replacements – ask your tyre fitter for advice.

Drive gently – racing starts and sudden stops increase fuel consumption. Use higher gears when traffic conditions allow.

Steady you speed – at around 50mph (80 kph) emissions will be lowest, rising dramatically above 70mph (110 kph).

Switch off when stationary – if stuck in traffic or stopping more than a minute. Idling engines make sitting in jams even more unpleasant. Do not run the engine unnecessarily – drive off soon after starting (in some areas it may be an offence to leave the engine running).

Be considerate of those around you - reduce the volume of your car stereo or close your car window in residential areas, and avoid sounding your horn or revving your engine.

Air conditioning and on board electrical devices increase fuel consumption – only use them when really necessary.

Share your journeys – go shopping with friends or neighbours, take a colleague to work, or join a car share club http://www.carplus.org.uk/ or liftshare http://www.liftshare.org/

Investigate alternatives – If you're looking for a new car there are a number of different technologies and fuels available; existing cars can also be adapted to give off lower emissions.

What can I do to reduce car pollution at work? Travel Plans.A travel plan is a range of practical measures to reduce car use for journeys to and from work and for business travel. Measures can include encouraging colleagues to use public transport or providing a dedicated bus service, improving cycling facilities, or car sharing clubs. By setting up a travel plan, your company, school or university can help reduce its impact on the environment, save money and improve its relationship with the neighbouring community. A plan can also help improve accesibility for everyone, not just car drivers.

Green Fleets.If your company has a fleet of vehicles it makes environmental and financial sense to ensure these are adequately maintained, and that drivers are given guidance on how to reduce their environmental impact. Cleaner fuels and technologies can also be considered, as well as working to reduce overall mileage of the fleet and improving fuel efficiency, in order to reduce emissions. The Energy Saving Trust gives free green fleet reviews to companies with fleets of over 50 vehicles, or over 20 in Scotland.

Taxation.In addition to the Company Car Tax rules there are several other tax breaks available. If a company offers free or subsidised work buses, subsidies to public bus services, cycles and safety equipment for employees, or workplace parking for cycles and motorcycles, employees are not required to pay tax for the benefit.

Choosing a cleaner car.In the UK 2.2 million new cars and 8 million used cars are sold annually. 1.2 million of the new cars sold are to company fleets. When buying a car for use at home or work consider choosing the option with the lowest environmental impact.

New Cars.Diesel and petrol cars dominate new car sales, but gas (e.g. LPG), biofuel and hybrid vehicles are also available. Diesels emit less CO2 than petrol vehicles, but more local pollutants harmful to health. Hybrids give maximum benefit if your journeys involve lots of urban driving. You can check the carbon dioxide emissions and fuel consumption of new cars in the VCA guide. Advertisements for new cars give the CO2 emissions and this information is available at the showroom.

Vehicles that run on alternative fuels include LPG (liquid petroleum gas), electric or hybrid vehicles. Cleaner fuels are becoming more widely available and they may save you money and reduce pollution.

Used Cars.When buying a used car you have similar choices on size, fuel type, etc than you do when buying a new one. Remember that the newer the vehicle is, the cleaner it is likely to be, however regular maintenance is also important and a full service history will help to ensure the vehicle is running clean and well. For vehicles produced after March 2001 you'll be able to find CO2 and fuel economy figures in the VCA guide.

Cleaner Car Tips. Downsize − a smaller car will save you money and reduce pollution. Many small cars now have ‘big car’ features and levels of comfort.

Think fuel – if most of your driving is on motorways and trunk roads a diesel car could offer the lowest CO2 emissions. If most of your driving is urban a petrol, or better still a hybrid, has lower emissions of local pollutants harmful to health.

Check the figures – if you're after a new car, or a used one produced after March 2001, check the VED database for its CO2 emissions and Euro standard. Aim for a low CO2 figure and a Euro IV rating.

Look at the history – when shopping for a used car look for one with a good service history to ensure it has been well maintained.

Turn it off – remember that air conditioning and electrical gadgets can increase fuel use significantly.

Why idle? – Many vehicles now are available with stop-start technology that automatically stops the engine when the car is stationary, and starts it again very quickly when you’re ready to move off. This saves fuel, and reduces both emissions and noise.

Look to the future – cars that meet the Euro V standard will start appearing in the new market during 2009, ask the dealers if the model your interested in complies.

Which fuel?Different fuels have different environmental advantages.

Diesel.Diesel vehicles generally have significantly lower CO2 emissions compared to petrol, because of the higher efficiency of diesel engines. However they emit higher levels of NOx and particulates than new petrol vehicles. Diesel is therefore generally better for global warming, but worse for local pollutants harmful to health.

Petrol.Petrol vehicles produce less local air pollution with their lower NOx and particulate emissions. Some new petrol technologies now coming onto the market offer significant improvements in fuel efficiency. Compare fuel economy and CO2 figures for petrol and diesel models to see what the differences are.

Biofuels.Biofuels are produced from oil of crops such as oilseed rape, sunflowers and soybeans, and from waste cooking oils. They are usually sold in blends of up to 5% with petrol or diesel and although they are not completely carbon neutral (because of the energy used to grow and process them) they offer significant carbon savings over petrol and diesel and are compatible with most vehicles. You should check with your vehicle’s manufacturer to be sure.

Biodiesel is more widely available than bioethanol and some higher blends of biodiesel can also be used in some vehicles. Some vehicles, known as “flex fuel vehicles” can run on a blend of up to 85% bioethanol and 15% petrol, known as E85, as well as just petrol. Availability of these vehicles is currently limited but improving.

LPG and CNG.LPG (Liquid Petroleum Gas) has proved popular thanks to Government tax incentives that make fuel relatively cheap. However, the Government has started to reduce the tax differential between LPG and conventional fuels and will continue to do so over coming years. Vehicles using LPG tend to be dual-fuel and can run on either petrol or LPG. On local emissions LPG vehicles tend to have cleaner exhausts than petrol vehicles, and diesel like emissions of CO2.

CNG (Compressed Natural Gas) offers even lower CO2 emissions than LPG, and very low particulate emissions. CNG vehicles can also run on biomethane, offering even lower CO2 emissions.

LPG and CNG cars are generally converted from petrol fuelled cars, either by the original manufacturer or by a specialist converter. Some manufacturers now offer ‘dedicated’ cars, which have been specially designed to run on gaseous fuels. These are likely to give the best performance.

Electric Vehicles.A number of Electric Vehicles (EVs) are available. They are cheap to run and have virtually no emissions at the point of use, although when the batteries are charged emissions are created at power stations. The drawbacks are that battery technology, although improving, remains heavy and expensive. EVs have a limited range – typically 50 miles – and can take several hours to recharge, but are worth considering as an urban runabout suitable for shorter journeys.

Hybrid Vehicles.Hybrid vehicles use a conventional petrol engine in conjunction with an electric motor and a battery. The extra power of the electric motor allows a smaller petrol engine to be used and for it to be loaded more efficiently. This can reduce CO2 and local pollutant emissions. Some hybrids operate on their electric motor alone for short periods of time at low speeds.

There are now several hybrid models available in the UK. The hybrid drive can be used to reduce emissions or alternatively to improve performance over models with a similar sized petrol engine. In addition to ‘full’ hybrids, ‘micro’ hybrids are also available. In these models the electric motor does not provide power to propel the vehicle, but allows the petrol engine to stop when the vehicle comes to a halt. These cars are usually cheaper than ‘full’ hybrids, and in urban areas produce significantly less CO2, local air pollution and noise.

Fuel Cell and Other Vehicles.Fuel cell vehicles combine hydrogen fuel with oxygen from the air to produce electricity. This is then used to propel the vehicle, the only exhaust emissions being water. Emissions are produced in the production of the hydrogen fuel; at present most hydrogen comes from reforming natural gas. Although fuel cell vehicles are clean and quiet they are currently in the early stages of development, and it will be some years before they become common on our roads.

(http://www.environmental-protection.org.uk/car-pollution)

Fireworks

Fireworks are widely used to mark public events and private celebrations, as well as traditional events. While adding excitement to occasions, fireworks can also frighten and disturb people and animals, cause annoyance, damage and impact on air quality.

Why worry about fireworks? Noise.Fireworks can frighten people. In particular children and the elderly can be intimidated and scared by firework noise. Late at night they also disturb our sleep. Farm animals have been scared to death, literally, and startled animals have been injured, killed and caused accidents when bolting. Disturbing domestic pets can also be dangerous as panicked pets can be vicious and destructive.

Air Pollution.The bright colours and effects in fireworks are produced by a cocktail of chemicals. Fireworks emit light, heat and sound energy along with carbon dioxide and other gases and residues. The exact emissions will depend on the firework, but as gunpowder is a main component sulphur compounds are emitted, along with small amounts of particulates, metal oxides and organic compounds (including minute amounts of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, dioxins and furans). On and around Bonfire Night (5th November), there is often a noticeable increase in pollution from particulates and dioxins. Approximately 5 − 14% of UK dioxin emissions are produced around Bonfire Night – most of this is believed to come from bonfires rather than fireworks. Current research indicates that deposits of pollutants from fireworks do not pose a risk to soil or water.

Fireworks and the law. Supply of Fireworks.All fireworks for use by the public must be used in compliance with the Pyrotechnic Articles (Safety) Regulations 2010 and should be “CE” marked (showing that they meet EU requirements set out in Directive 2007/23/EC) and thus comply with the Regulations.

There are four categories of fireworks

Category 1 - indoor fireworks

Category 2 - garden fireworks

Category 3 - display fireworks for open areas such as fields

Category 4 - professional fireworks for large open areas

Under the regulations the sale of fireworks to anyone under 18 is banned, and caps, cracker snaps, party poppers and Christmas crackers cannot be sold to anyone under 16. The supply of bangers, mini rockets, fireworks that fly erratically (squibs, helicopters etc), aerial shells, aerial maroons, aerial mortars, some large category 2 and 3 fireworks and all category 4 fireworks are banned from supply to the public. (In Northern Ireland, the purchase, possession and use of Category 2 (except sparklers), 3 or 4 fireworks requires a licence from the Firearms and Explosives Branch of the Northern Ireland Office (under the Explosives (Fireworks) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2002.)

The regulations are enforced by local authority consumer protection/trading standards officers. Suppliers or shopkeepers who do not comply with the Regulations can be prosecuted and fined and imprisoned.

Since January 2005 the sale of fireworks to the public is prohibited, except from licensed traders. The Fireworks Regulations 2004 state that in England, Wales and Scotland fireworks can be sold by unlicensed traders for Chinese New Year and the preceding three days, Diwali and the preceding three days, 15th October − 10th November, to allow Bonfire Night celebrations, and 26^th − 31st December for New Year celebrations.

Storage of Fireworks.Under the Manufacture and Storage of Explosives Regulations 2005 (MSER) individuals can store up to 5kg of Hazard Type 4 fireworks (generally Category 1 and 2 fireworks) without a license and for an unlimited time. The Regulations also permit individuals to store up to 50 kg of Hazard Type 4 fireworks for private use for up to 21 days, without the need to license or register. However, although the Regulations permit small quantities of fireworks to be kept without the need to license or register, other requirements of the regulations − e.g. on storing safely − still apply.

Nuisance and Danger Caused by Fireworks.If a local authority officer judges noise from fireworks to be a statutory nuisance under the Environmental Protection Act 1990, they can issue an abatement notice – however, as firework noise is short lived, in practice it can prove difficult to locate the source. Under the Noise Act 1996 local authorities in England and Wales have powers to issue a fixed penalty notice if excessive noise is emitted from premises (including gardens) between 11.00 pm and 7.00 am. Under the Crime and Disorder Act 1998 local authorities or the police can apply to magistrates for an anti-social behaviour order where anyone has caused “harassment, alarm or distress”. Disobeying an order carries a maximum penalty of a five year prison sentence.

Fixed Penalty Notices.Throwing or setting off fireworks in the street is an offence under the Explosives Act 1875. This is enforced by the police, and a fixed penalty notice of £80 applies. Police can serve a fixed penalty notice of £80 to anyone under 18 possessing a firework in a public place and for breach of the 11.00 pm curfew on letting off fireworks.

Animals.It is an offence to cause unnecessary suffering to animals under the Animal Welfare Act 2006, and if found guilty carries a fine of up to £20,000 and/or a prison term of up to six months. The Act is enforced by local councils, animal health officers and the police.

When can I use fireworks?The Firework Regulations 2004 prohibit anyone under 18 from possessing fireworks, and anyone except professionals from possessing display fireworks. These regulations also prohibit the use of fireworks at night (11.00 pm – 7.00 am) in England and Wales, with extensions for the following festivals:

First day of Chinese New Year until 1.00 am the following day

On the day of Diwali until 1.00 am the following day

On New Year’s Eve until 1.00 am on New Year’s Day

On 5th November until midnight

These regulations are to be enforced by the police. There is a penalty of up to £5000 or 6 months in prison for breach of the curfew.

Similar Restrictions apply in Northern Ireland and in Scotland though in Scotland the local authority may grant a dispensation for national celebrations or commemorative events.

Avoid firework frights!Fireworks add excitement and glamour to celebrations and are enjoyed by many. Large organised displays are used to celebrate state occasions, sporting events and also for family celebrations. Fireworks don’t have to be ear splitting to be fun. We can enjoy them in safety, without causing annoyance to our neighbours and their pets or livestock, or to wildlife. If you have your own firework display, remember that too much noise can frighten people and animals, and that fireworks cause smoke and pollution. Follow these simple guidelines to reduce the risk of nuisance.

Give neighbours a few days notice of your display – particularly important if they are elderly, have children or pets.

Use appropriate fireworks – when buying fireworks, try to avoid really noisy ones. Your supplier should be able to tell you what they are selling.

Make sure pets and other animals are safely away from fireworks.

Consider timing. If you are using fireworks for a celebration, a Friday or a Saturday is preferable; remember it is illegal to use fireworks after 11.00 pm.

Avoid letting off fireworks in unsuitable weather – if it is still and misty or air quality is poor, pollution could be a problem.

Let off your fireworks in open garden areas – noise bounces off buildings and smoke and pollution build up in enclosed spaces.

If a neighbour complains that you are disturbing them, their pets or livestock, be considerate.

After your display, clear up firework fall out and dispose of it safely.

(http://www.environmental-protection.org.uk/neighbourhood-nuisance/fireworks)

Garden Bonfires

The bonfire takes its name from the medieval bon-fire of animal bones. While modern day bonfire ingredients are on the whole less gruesome, burning waste materials can cause pollution and local nuisance. Fires have been used throughout the centuries – to mark occasions, as signals and to dispose of waste. However, we now have alternatives for disposing of most materials – and burning some things is illegal.

What’s wrong with bonfires? Air Pollution.Burning garden waste produces smoke – especially if that waste is green or damp. This will emit harmful pollutants including particles and dioxins. Burning plastic, rubber or painted materials creates noxious fumes that give off a range of poisonous compounds.

Health Effects.Air pollution can have damaging health effects, and people with existing health problems are especially vulnerable, e.g. asthmatics, bronchitis sufferers, people with heart conditions, children and the elderly.

Annoyance.Smoke, smuts and smell from bonfires have long been a source of a significant number of complaints to local authorities every year. Smoke prevents neighbours from enjoying their gardens, opening windows or hanging washing out, and reduces visibility in the neighbourhood and on roads. Allotments near homes can cause problems if plot holders persistently burn green waste, and leave fires smouldering.

Safety.Fire can spread to fences or buildings and scorch trees and plants. Exploding bottles and cans are a hazard when rubbish is burned. Piles of garden waste are often used as a refuge by animals, so look out for hibernating wildlife and sleeping pets.

(http://www.environmental-protection.org.uk/neibourhood-nuisance/garden-bonfires/#wa786)

What’s the alternative?

Composting.Rather than burning garden waste or putting food waste in the dustbin where it will end up buried or incinerated, a compost bin will produce useful soil conditioner, saving money on commercial products. Some local authorities collect this waste. Woody waste can be shredded to make it suitable for composting or mulching. You can buy or hire shredders, and some allotment societies have their own. If using a shredder is considerate – they are very noisy so don’t swap one nuisance for another!

Advice on composting is available from your local authority and from gardening organisations.

Recycling.Household waste should certainly not be burnt. Many items can be reused or recycled and your local council will have recycling facilities. Some local authorities provide bins for you to separate your waste and collect garden waste, others may charge for a service or you can take it to the local amenity site. Burning old furniture can cause particular hazards, as some materials can release toxic fumes when burnt. If furniture is in reasonable condition there are many charitable or council services that collect and re-use unwanted items; many local authorities also offer a bulky waste collection service for old furniture. Your unwanted goods may also be of value to other people and can be donated to charity shops, or even make you money through sale in classified adverts, car boot sales or services such as eBay.

(http://www.environmental-protection.org.uk/neighbourhood-nuisance/arden - bonfires/#wa788)

Bonfires and the law

When and where can I have a bonfire?It is a common misconception that there are specific byelaws prohibiting garden bonfires or specifying times they can be lit – there aren’t. However, this is not a licence for indiscriminate burning! Occasionally a bonfire is the best practicable way to dispose of woody or diseased waste that cannot be composted. And bonfires are used to mark traditional celebrations – especially November 5th.

Under the Environmental Protection Act 1990 (as amended) it is an offence for people to dispose of their domestic waste in a way likely to cause pollution of the environment or harm to human health. In practice you should not burn waste that is likely to create excessive smoke or noxious fumes. If only dry garden waste is burnt, your bonfire should not cause a problem.

Most bonfire problems are addressed under nuisance legislation. Under the Environmental Protection Act 1990, a statutory nuisance includes “smoke, fumes or gases emitted from premises so as to be prejudicial to health or a nuisance.” In practice a fire would have to be a recurrent persistent problem, interfering substantially with neighbours’ well-being, comfort or enjoyment of their property.

(In Northern Ireland the Public Health Act 1878 as amended defines nuisance, and provides powers for district councils to serve abatement notices; the Clean Neighbourhoods and Environment Act (NI) 2011 makes provision for a statutory nuisance regime similar to that in the rest of the UK; regulations bringing this part of the Act into force have not yet been made.)

If a bonfire of industrial or commercial waste is emitting black smoke it is dealt with under the Clean Air Act 1993 – this includes the burning of such material in your garden! Under section 34 of the Environmental Protection Act 1990 it is illegal to dispose of waste that is not from your property – for example from your workplace or from a neighbour. For example, small tradesmen must not burn waste from site at home.

How do I complain about a bonfire?If bothered by smoke, approach your neighbour and explain the problem. You might feel awkward but they may not be aware of the distress they are causing and it will hopefully make them more considerate in the future. If this fails, environmental health at your local council should be notified. They must investigate your complaint and must issue a notice under the Environmental Protection Act 1990 if they consider a nuisance is being caused. The Act also allows you to take private action in the magistrates court. However, if a fire is a one-off it may be difficult to prove a nuisance. Similarly, if you are troubled from bonfires from different neighbours, each only burning occasionally, a nuisance action would be difficult as there are several offenders. In this situation encourage them to consider the alternatives – give them a copy of this leaflet! Finally, under section 161A of the Highways Act 1980, anyone lighting a fire and allowing smoke to drift across a road faces a fine if it endangers traffic or causes injury. Contact the police if this is the case.

Barbecues.Barbecues can also cause smoke and odour problems – especially if you use lighter fuel. Again, be considerate. Warn your neighbours, and don’t light up if they have washing out. If it is windy make sure smoke won’t blow directly into neighbouring properties – and keep the noise down.

(http://www.environmental-protection.org.uk/neighbourhood-uisance/garden - bonfires/#wa790)

Bonfire guidelines

A bonfire can be a useful way for disposing of garden waste that cannot be composted – or perhaps you want a bonfire just for fun. Bonfires have traditionally been used to mark events – currently the main bonfire tradition is Bonfire Night, and in N Ireland 11th July. If you do have a bonfire to dispose of garden waste, or on Bonfire Night, warn your neighbours – they are much less likely to complain. And follow our good bonfire guidelines.

Bonfire Guidelines:

Only burn dry material

Never burn household rubbish, rubber tyres or anything containing plastic, foam or paint

Avoid lighting a fire in unsuitable weather conditions – smoke hangs in the air on damp, still days. If it is too windy, smoke blows into neighbours’ gardens and windows and across roads

Avoid burning when air pollution levels in your area are high or very high.

Keep your fire away from trees, fences and buildings

Never use oil, petrol or methylated spirits to light a fire – you could damage yourself as well as the environment

Never leave a fire unattended or leave it to smoulder – put it out

(http://www.environmental-protection.org.uk/neighbourhood-uisance/garden - bonfires/#wa792)

Light Pollution

Artificial light is essential in our modern society. It has many uses including illumination of streets, roads and hazardous areas; for security lighting; to increase the hours of usage for outdoor sports and recreation facilities, to enhance the appearance of buildings at night.

The increased use of lighting, however, can cause problems. Light in the wrong place at the wrong time can be intrusive. There has been an increase in complaints about light to local authorities in recent years.

What is lighting?Lighting is simply a means of illumination and apart from rare instances of glare only really becomes a problem after dark. It is measured in lux and is a product of both the luminous intensity (brightness) of the lamp used and the distance from the lamp to the surface being lit.

How much light do we need?The level of light needed in lux will vary depending upon the circumstances, but as a rough guide the level of illumination required in a dark area to recognise a face at a distance of 10 metres is 2.7 lux. Here are some other examples of typical outdoor lux levels which lighting engineers try to achieve:

What is light pollution?Light pollution is probably best described as artificial light that is allowed to illuminate, or intrude upon, areas not intended to be lit.

Intrusive Light.This is the intrusion of over bright or poorly directed lights onto neighbouring property, which affect the neighbours’ right to enjoy their own property. A typical example would be an inconsiderately directed security light shining into a bedroom window.

Skyglow.Skyglow is the orange glow seen over towns and roads from upward light. This is a serious problem for astronomers as the artificial brightness of the sky overpowers distant stars, especially those low in the night sky. It is becoming more and more difficult to find areas where our view of the night sky is unaffected by illumination. The light from distant stars can take hundreds, even thousands, of years to reach our eyes − so it is a pity to lose it on the last moment of its journey!

Poor Lighting.Inconsiderate or incorrectly set lighting can have other effects:

It produces glare which occurs when the over brightness of a light source against a dark background interferes with a person's ability to view an area or object, i.e. glare can conceal rather than reveal.

It can detract from the architectural appearance of a building and even hide complex or attractive features.

It can impact on the ecology and wildlife of an area, and affect the behavioural patterns of mammals, birds, insects and fish.

The wasting of light is a waste of the energy which powers the light and is therefore a waste of resources and money.

How to prevent light pollution.Before going to the expense and effort of installing lighting a few simple questions should be asked:

Is lighting necessary?

Could safety or security be achieved by other measures, such as segregation or screening of an area?

Do the lights have to be on all night? For example, over advertising hoardings; the exterior of buildings or empty car parks.

If lighting is the best option then only the right amount of light for the task should be installed. Lighting will then only become a problem if it is poorly designed or incorrectly installed.

If lighting is necessary, a number of measures can be taken to avoid causing a nuisance:

For domestic security lights a 150W lamp is adequate. High power (300/500W) lamps create too much glare reducing security. For an all-night porch light a 9W lamp is more than adequate in most situations.

Make sure that lights are correctly adjusted so that they only illuminate the surface intended and do not throw light onto neighbouring property. Security lights should be correctly adjusted so that they only pick up the movement of persons in the area intended and not beyond.

To reduce the effects of glare main beam angles of all lights should be below 70 degrees.

Direct light downwards. If uplighting has to be used then install shields or baffles above the lamp to reduce the amount of wasted upward light.

Do not install equipment which spreads light above the horizontal

Light pollution law. New Developments.The best method of dealing with light pollution is at the planning stage. This is an ideal time to influence the design or installation of lighting schemes. However, not all developments, for example domestic security lighting, require planning consent. Those that do are developments involving the carrying out of building or engineering or which involve making material changes to existing buildings or land.

Environmental Zones.The Institute of Lighting Engineers recommends that Local Planning Authorities specify the following environmental zones for exterior lighting control within their Development Plans.

Where an area to be lit lies on the boundary of two zones, the obtrusive light limitation values used should be those applicable to the strictest zone.

Existing Developments − Light Nuisance.Local authorities receiving complaints about artificial light in England and Wales can now assess whether light is a nuisance under the Clean Neighbourhoods and Environment Act 2005, and in Scotland under the Public Health (Scotland) Act 2008. These Acts extend nuisance provisions of the Environmental Protection Act 1990 to cover artificial light emitted from premises – including domestic and commercial security lights, some healthy living and sports facilities and domestic decorative lighting; artificial light from transport facilities, freight depots, lighthouses (but not in Scotland), prisons and defence premises is excluded. Civil action can also be taken by an individual to tackle a lighting problem. He or she would have to be able to prove that a nuisance existed. A nuisance can be described as an adverse state of affairs that interferes with an individual’s use and enjoyment of his or her property.

What can I do?

Tackle the Source

First, approach the owner of the lighting. Often the remedy is quite simple. A minor adjustment may be all that is required, or maybe an agreement about when lights should be turned on or off. Remember, of course, to be considerate in your own design and installation of lighting systems.

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