Twenty-five personal points about selling

Whatever your business, you will need to sell something. This goes for products, services—even selling yourself to a customer or client. Here is a set of common-sense "commandments" to help you make the most of your personal efforts.

1. Smile. It is the shortest route to a sale. The one overwhelming reason customers are turned off and there are no repeat sales is indifference on the part of the salesperson. A smile creates instant empathy. It says, "I like you."

2. Be Helpful. After the initial greeting, make your first question, “How can I help you?"

3. Make Eye Contact. Eyes are the window to our involvement as well as to our soul. Looking the prospect in the eyes shows you interest; looking away shows disinterest.

4. Listen. Find out what a customer has to say. Don't interrupt
Listening is more difficult than talking.

5. Don't Argue. You might not agree, but remember that the customer is always right.

6. Be Accountable. You are personally responsible for the sale and, therefore, for any of your actions that lead to the customer's satisfaction or dissatisfaction.

7. Anticipate. When the initial sale is completed, ask, "Is there anything else I can do for you?"

8. Say Thanks. Always thank the customer for his or her business. Even if you have to say merci, danke, grazie, gracias, tak se, meka, toda rabah, spaseebo, efcharisto, dank u, djekui. It pays to learn these in our ethnic world.

9. Ask for Suggestions. Encourage customers, as well as employees and friends, to comment on your performance and your company's products.

10. Use Them. Don't just listen or observe, but make use of constructive suggestions and comments.

11. Accept Complaints. A "beef" is not completely negative; it is also an opportunity to improve.

12. Resolve Problems. Respond to complaints with a positive attitude, professionalism, and courtesy.

13. Be Prompt. Start the process of resolving the problem right away, before it festers into a sore.

14. Show Willingness. You can resolve the problem faster by listening politely and patiently than by resisting. This approach tends to take the wind out of the complainer's sails.

15 Get All the Facts. Ask specific and leading questions to show your concern and desire to solve the problem. You probably can't resolve every one you encounter, but you can try.

16. Try to Understand. Though you might not agree and might be frustrated, try to see the problem from the customer's perspective, One approach is to restate the problem the way the customer has phrased it.

17. Set a Time Frame. Get the complaining customer on your side by asking whether a specific time frame for resolution is okay.

18. Follow Through. See all problems through and make sure the buck is not passed.

19. Apply Individualism. Treat each complaint on its own merits; don't lump it with similar ones.

20. Communicate. When a resolution has been achieved, let the customer know about it as soon as possible.

21. Check Back. When the problem has been resolved, contact the customer by phone, in person, or with a response card to see that he or she is satisfied.

22. Again, Say Thanks. It won't hurt to let the customer know t the conclusion of this process that you appreciate his or her understanding and patience.

23. Attend to Appearance. The way your establishment looks, the way you look, the way your employees look set the tone for your company and products. This concept extends even to your delivery vehicle, stationery, and packaging.

24. Other Nonverbals. Besides appearance, there are traits and habits that can either impress or offend. A poor impression is made by smoking on the job, drinking, smelling badly, not get-j ting up when the customer approaches, having unpleasant facial expressions, chewing gum or food, and slouching around in-stead of being attentive. The opposites of all these are ingredients the lead to sales and profits, satisfaction and happiness in business.

Text 5

WAYS TO BOOST SALES

The ideas below are particularly applicable to retail businesses. They are not entirely original, but they are a little different – and according to successful retailers, they work. For start-up businesses especially, these methods increase credibility and reportedly have increased sales two to two-and-a-half times over previous levels. Some of the approaches are equally applicable to service businesses.

1. Cash Purchases. If your business is based on billing, and there are expectations of 30 days' leeway, then getting cash on purchase or job completion is like getting 1 percent additional income—and probably more, since not everybody pays within 30 days. In fact, if you bill at the end of the month, and the customer takes a customary 30 days to pay, it could be as long as 60 days after the initial transaction before you will see any money. Let's say it costs you 12 percent to borrow money; then two months' worth of interest can be as much as 2 percent. Offer a 1 to 2 percent discount for cash payments and you will get a good portion of your business converted from charge to cash.

2. Volume Purchases. When customers buy in bulk you save money in service, handling, delivery, billing, and perhaps discounts granted from your suppliers. Passing on all or some of these savings to the customer will encourage larger purchases and allow you to have greater merchandise turnover.

3. Unadvertised Store Specials. Numerous large chain and grocery stores make periodic in-store announcements on their public-address systems of special price reductions that were not advertised in other public media. If you do not have a PA system, you can top the discounted merchandising display with a bright card, stating "$AVE on this Unadvertised Special."

4. Quick Delivery. Quick or free delivery can make a difference in closing a sale. Some people are simply eager to receive their merchandise once they have purchased it; others must meet a deadline such as someone's birthday or anniversary. Often a charge can be made for this service, because the customer knows that "time is money."

5. Advertising Enclosures. These are piggyback mini-flyers that can be enclosed with statements and invoices. Since most billing mail weighs a mere half ounce, you can add another half ounce of promotional material without paying more postage. Remember, too, that your regular charge customer is probably the best repeat customer!

6. Guaranteed Price. This incentive is especially workable with industrial customers and buyers of commercial supplies. They might want to buy the items on February 15 but postpone delivery until after April 1, which is the time when they need the goods, or it is a new purchase/billing cycle or the time when they will open. Meanwhile, if they have locked in the price at current figures, you have created a happy customer.

PART II

Unit 1 Management

Text 1

Douglas McGregor – Theory X & Theory Y

In 1960 Douglas McGregor defined contrasting assumptions about the nature of humans in the work place. These assumptions are the basis of Theory X and Theory Y.

Theory X. Theory X basically holds the belief that people do not like work and that some kind of direct pressure and control must be exerted to get them to work effectively. These people requirea rigidly managed environment, usually requiring threats of disciplinary action as a primary source of motivation. It is also held that employees will only respond to monetary rewards as an incentive to perform above the level of that which is expected. From a management point of view, autocratic (Theory X) managers like to retain most of their authority. They make decisions on their own and inform the workers, assuming that they will carry out the instructions. Autocratic managers are often called “authoritative” for this reason; they act as “authorities”. This type of managers is highly task oriented, placing a great deal of concern towards getting the job done, with little concern about workers’ attitudes towards manager’s decision. This show that autocratic managers lose ground in the work place, making way for leaders who share more authority and decision making with other members of the group.

Theory Y. A more popular view of the relationship found in the work place between managers and workers, is explained in the concepts of Theory Y. This theory assumes that people are creative and eager to work. Workers tend to desire more responsibility than Theory X workers, and have strong desires to participate in the decision making process. Theory Y workers are comfortable in a working environment which allows creativity and the opportunity to become personally involved in organizational planning. Theory Y workers are emphasizes to be far more prevalent in the work place than are Theory X workers. For instance, it is pointed out that ingenuity, creativity and imagination are increasingly present throughout the ranks of the working population These people not only accept responsibility, but actively seek increased authority.

William Ouchi - Theory Z. Another theory which has emerged, and deals with the way in which workers are perceived by managers, as well as how managers are perceived by workers, is William Ouchi’s Theory Z. Often referred to as the “Japanese” management style, Theory Z offers the notion of a hybrid management style which is a combination of a strict American management style (Theory A) and a strict Japanese management style (Theory J). This theory speaks of an organizational culture which mirrors the Japanese culture in which workers are more participative, and capable of performing many and varied tasks. Theory Z emphasizes thing such as job rotation, broadening of skills, generalization versus specialization, and the need for continuous training of workers.

Much like McGregor’s theories, Ouchi’s Theory Z makes certain assumptions about workers. Some of the assumptions about workers under this theory include the notion that workers tend to want to build co-operative and intimate working relationships with those they work for and with, as well as the people that work for them. Also Theory Z workers have a high need to be supported by the company, and highly value a working environment in which such things as family, cultures add traditions, and social institutions are regarded as equally important as the work itself. Finally, Theory Z workers, it is assumed, can be trusted to do their jobs to their utmost ability, so long as management can be trusted to support them and look out for their wellbeing.

Text 2

Managing Conflict

Conflict is an inevitable by-product of interpersonal dealings. This is particularly true of work groups because they generally are expediently assembled collections of individuals with differing backgrounds, perceptions, attitudes and values. Conflict, as defined by an expert in the field, “refers to all kinds of opposition or antagonistic interaction. It is based on scarcity of power, resources or social position, and differing value structures”. But one should be careful not to assume that all conflict is bad. Conflict has two faces, one functional (or constructive) and the other dysfunctional (or destructive). “Constructive conflict is both valuable and necessary. Without conflict, there would be few new challenges; there would be no stimulation to think through ideas; organizations would be only apathetic and stagnant”.

Conflict triggers. A conflict trigger is a circumstance that increases the chances of intergroup or interpersonal conflict. It can stimulate either functional or dysfunctional conflict. As long as a conflict trigger appears to stimulate constructive conflict, it can be allowed to continue. But as soon as the symptoms of destructive conflict become apparent, steps should be taken to remove or correct the offending conflict trigger. Major conflict triggers include: ambiguous overlapping jurisdictions; competition for scarce resources; communication breakdowns; time pressure; unreasonable standards, rules. Policies, or procedures; personality clashes; status differentials; unrealized expectations.

Resolving conflict. Even the best managers sometimes find themselves in the middle of dysfunctional conflict, whether it is due to inattention or to circumstances beyond their control. In these situations, one or more of the following conflict resolution techniques may be appropriate.

Problem solving. When conflicting parties take the time to identify and correct the source of their conflict, they are engaging in problem solving. This approach is based on the assumption that causes must be rooted out and attacked if anything is really to change. The major shortcoming of the problem-solving approach is that it takes time, but the investment of extra time can pay off handsomely when the problem is corrected instead of ignored.

Superordinate goals. “Superordinate goals are highly valued, unattainable by any one group (or individual) alone, and commonly sought”. When a manager relies on superordinate goals to resolve dysfunctional conflict, he or she brings the conflicting parties together and, in effect says, “Look, we’re all in this together. Let’s forget our differences so we can get the job done”. Although this technique often works in the short run, the underlying problem totally crops up later to cause friction once again.

Compromise. This technique generally appeals to those living in a democracy. Proponents of this approach claim that everybody wins because it is based on negotiation, or give, or take. But everyone loses something in a compromise. Something must be given up if anything is to be gained. Like problem solving, compromise takes time that management may or may not be able to afford. But, unlike problem solving, the problem is worked around rather than solved.

Forcing. Sometimes, especially when time is important, management must simply step into a conflict and order the conflicting parties to handle the situation in a certain manner. Reliance on formal authority and power of superior position are at the heart of forcing. Forcing does not resolve the personal conflict and, in fact, may serve to compound it by hurting feelings and/or fostering resentment and mistrust.

Smoothing. A manager who relies on smoothing, says to the conflicting parties something like “Settle down. Don’t rock the boat. Things will work out themselves”. This approach may tone down conflict in the short run, but it doesn’t solve the underlying problem. As with the each other conflict resolution techniques, smoothing has its place. It can be useful when management is attempting to hold things together until a critical project is completed or when there is no time for problem solving or compromise and forcing is deemed inappropriate.

Text 3

Selecting Employees

Selection is the process of collecting systematic information about applicants and using that information to decide which applicant to hire. The major purpose of various devices of selection - application form, interviews, testing, and reference checking - is to gather information about the applicants’ job related skills. A very important principle of the questions should reflect the activities of the job to be filled.

The application. Traditional application forms ask information about educational and work history, avocational interests, and honors. However, such forms have limitations. In the majority of cases, they have limited space, so the applicant can supply only basic information such as the manes of schools attended, major, dated of attendance, and previous job titles and dates of employment. A second limitation is that a large percentage of respondents falsify the information that they report. Such falsification is easy because often all that is requested is brief information such as job title and major.

One device that has been used successfully is a training and experience form, which presents a small number, for example five, of the important tasks of the job. The form asks applicants to indicate whether they have ever performed or been trained in each of the activities. If they answer yes, they are then asked to describe briefly how to perform the activity.

The interview. The interview is, perhaps, the most often used selection device. The purpose of the interview is to allow at least one member of the organization to interact with each applicant and assess that applicant’s job-related KSAs (key selection areas). Two aspects of the interview format are especially important. First, the interview should be structured, meaning that the interviewer asks the same set of job-related questions of each candidate. This ensures that the interviewer gathers full information from each applicant, and it makes comparisons among applicants easier because they all are evaluated on the same characteristics. The second aspect of the format is the nature of the questions. Questions about job-related behaviors have proven to be quite useful. The idea behind them is that gathering information about behaviors that are performed on the job is useful in making selection decision. The interviewer must evaluate the accuracy and completeness of the response.

Tests. Many organizations use tests during the selection process to identify those applicants who have the specific KSAs needed for the available position. Human resource managers can use many kinds of tests. The most common are the following:

Ability tests are paper-and-pencil quizzes, usually multiple choice, that measure an applicant’s knowledge of specific work content or cognitive ability.

Performance or work-sample tests verify an applicant’s ability to perform actual job behaviors identified from a job analysis. Perhaps the oldest example is a typing test.

Assessment center tests are programs that typically simulate managerial tasks. One of the most often used simulations is the In-Basket, which simulates 20 to 30 office memos, complete with an organizational chart and relevant company policy statement.

Integrity tests measure an applicant’s attitudes and opinions about dysfunctional behaviors such as theft, sabotage, physical abuse, and substance abuse. Companies usually use paper-and-pencil, multiple choice tests that ask about the applicant’s thoughts and reactions to a number of illegal or unethical situations.

Personality inventories measure the thoughts, feeling and behavior that define an individual and determine that person’s pattern of interaction with the environment. Two general types of personality tests have been used in selection. One is a multiple-choice questionnaire. The second type of personality tests is the projective test, which asks an applicant to write a story about ambiguous pictures or to finish partially completed sentences.

Physical examinations test individuals for placement in manually and physically demanding jobs.

Reference checks. A company considering hiring a particular applicant often contacts previous employers or others who know him or her well to verify the information previously obtained. Reference checks can be handled in three ways. The first, and most often used, is through telephone conversations, in which previous supervisors of the applicant are contacted. Other ways include in-person visits and mail inquiries. The organization may also obtain reference information from investigative agencies, credit bureaus, and public documents.

Unit 2. Marketing

Text 1

Why Segment Markets?

Henry Ford made history with his decision to mass produce the Model T Ford ad a very low price for the mass market. His famous quip, “The can have any color it wants, as long as it’s black!” clearly illustrated his marketing philosophy. A wise choice at the time, but for long. Other manufacturers, notably General Motors, began producing cars in a variety of price levels, styles, brands and colors, believing that the auto market was becoming bigger and more affluent - a segmented market. They were right. GM built a market lead over Ford that it has never relinquished.

Today, most firms pursue a market segmentation strategy. In fact, it is probably safe to say that market segmentation is one of the most visible features of the affluent society. As people increase their wealth and leisure time, they become able to enjoy a much greater variety of life-styles, and the many different products and services that go with them.

In short, market segmentation is popular because it often plays off in higher sales and profits. By designing specific products for different customer groups, the firm can more closely match the needs of its different target customers. This offers the firm some protection from competitors who are not as closely matched to these segments’ needs. Market segmentation bring other related benefits, too. It keeps the firm tuned more closely to the market and alert to new opportunities. And it encourages higher management efficiency in using the firms resources.

Logically, the concept of a market segment can be extended to the needs of individual customers or firms. In fact, the term “custom-made” refers to just this idea - creating a product or service to the specification of a particular customer. Since customized products and services are more costly to produce than standardized products, the total market that can afford to be individually served is very small. Even segmenting to larger groups can be extremely expensive.

Firms also must guard against creating too many different products or excessive or frivolous product features beyond those desired by enough customers.

Whether markets are uniform or segmented, they usually are too large for a single organization to serve effectively with its limited resources. Therefore firms select certain target markets from the segments it has identified. Marketing mix strategies are then developed to match these target market needs and also the objectives and resources of the firm.

Text 2

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