The semantic divergence or loss of semantic bond between 2 words polysemantically related before

Pupil → a) scholar
b) apple of an eye (зрачок)

Types:

• Homographs are words identical in spelling, but different both in their sound-form and meaning

tear n [tɪə] — ‘a drop of water that comes from the eye’

tear v [tɛə] — ‘to pull apart by force’

· Homophones are words identical in sound-form but different both in spelling and in meaning

Sea – see

Son – sun

• Perfect homonyms are words identical both in spelling and in sound-form but different in meaning

Case n — ’something that has happened’

Case n — ‘a box, a container’

Full homonyms represent the same category of part of speech and have the same paradigm: match, n – матч, match, n – спичка

Partial homonyms:

1) simple lexico-grammatical belong to the same category of part of speech and have one identical form (lay, v (inf.) - lay, v (to lie))

2) complex lexico-grammatical different categories of parts of speech and have one identical form (rose, n- rose, v (to rise))

3) lexicalthe same category of part of speech and are identical only in their corresponding forms (to can, v - can, v (modal))

№22

1. Способы образования новых слов. Аффиксация. Типы аффиксов.

Word-formation – the process of forming words by combining root and affixal morphemes according to certain patterns specific for the language (affixation, composition), or without any outward means of word formation (conversion, semantic derivation).
Affixation – word-forming suffixes:
I. Native:
• noun-forming suffixes: -er, -ness, -ing, -dom, -hood, -ship, -th
• adjective-forming suffixes: -ful, -y, -ly, -some, -less, -ish, -en
• verb-forming suffixes: -en
• adverb-forming suffixes: -ly
II. Borrowed:
1. Latin:
• noun-forming suffixes: -ion, -tion
• adjective-forming suffixes: -able, -ate, -ant, -ent, -or, -al, -ar
• verb-forming suffixes: -ate, -ute, -ct, -de, dis-
2. French:
• noun-forming suffixes: -ance, -ence, -ment, -age, -ess
• adjective-forming suffixes: -ous
• verb-forming suffixes: -en- (enable)
Affixes can be:
• Productive (-ism)
• Non-productive (-hood)

2. Фразеологические единицы. Различные типы классификаций.

Phraseological units – word-groups that cannot be made in the process of speech, they exist in the language as ready-made units. Can be:
I. Types lexical combinability of words:
1) Free combinations – grammatical properties of words are the main factor of their combinability. FC permits substitution of any of its elements without semantic change of the other element.
Ex.: I’m talking to you. You are writing.
2) Collocations – the habitual associations of a word in a language with other particular words. Speakers become accustomed to such collocations.
Ex.: to commit a murder , Bread & butter, Blue sky
3) Idioms – also collocations, because they consist of several words that tend to be used together, but the difference – we can’t guess the meaning of the whole idiom from the meanings of its parts.
Ex.: to cry a blue murder = to complain loudly.
II. This classification of idioms according to their structure:
1. Fixed idioms
a) fixed regular idioms
• It’s a 60-thousand dollar question = difficult question
b) fixed irregular (can be varied on the grammatical level)
• to have a bee in one’s bonnet (She has.., I have...)

2. Variable (varied on the lexical level)
Ex.: to add fuel to the fire/flame
• to mind one’s own business /to mind one business
• to nap a cat’s nap / to have a short nap (вздремнуть)
• dialectal: BrE: to have a skeleton in the cupboard
• AmE: to have a skeleton on the closet
III. Semantic classification:
1. Opaque in meaning (трудный для понимания)
the meaning of the individual words can’t be summed together to produce the meaning of the whole.
Ex.: to kick the bucket = to die
It contains no clue to the idiomatic meaning of this expression
The degree of semantic isolation is the highest. => phraseological fusions
2. Semi-opaque
one component preserves its direct meaning
Ex.: to pass the buck = to pass responsibility – свалить ответственность
=> phraseological unities
3. Transparent
both components in their direct meaning but the combination acquires figurative sense
Ex.: to see the light = to understand
=> phraseological combinations
IV. Koonin: “Structural-semantic classification”.
1. Nominative
• A hard nut to crack
2. Nominative–communicative
• The ice is broken
3. Interjectional & modal
• Oh, my eye! (= Oh, my God!)
• As sure as eggs is eggs (просто, как 2х2)
4. Communicative (proverbs, sayings)
• There is no smoke without fire.
5. Nominative:
• Substantive: crocodile tears
• Adjective: as mad as a hatter, as cool as a cucumber
• Adverbial: by & by, to & fro
• Verbal: to live like a lord

№23

1. Аффиксация. Этимологическая классификация. Продуктивность и частотность. Значение. Полуаффиксы.

Affixation – the process of adding 1 or more affixes to some root morpheme.

It is an unputdownable thriller (a nonce-word):

Borrowed suffix -able & the native prefix un- are highly productive

Productive:

Noun-forming suffixes

-er, -ing, -ness, -ism, -ist, -ance

Adjective-forming suffixes

-y, -ish, -ed (learned), -able, -less

Adverb-forming suffixes

-ly

Verb-forming suffixes

-ize/-ise, -ate

Prefixes

un- (unhappy), re- (reconstruct), dis- (disappoint)

Non-Productive:

Noun-forming suffixes

-th, -hood

Adjective-forming suffixes

-ly, -some, -en, -ous

Verb-forming suffix

-en

Frequency of occurrence:

The adjective-forming native suffixes: -ful, -ly

fishy — improbable, hard to believe

touchy — apt to take offence on slight provocation, i. e. resenting a touch or contact (not at all inclined to be touched)

A (root) + B (suffix)

A (root) + C (suffix)

The difference lies in the meaning of the suffix

· womanly — womanish

· reddened — reddish

· shortened — shortish

the meanings of the suffixes are distinct

they colour the whole words

ex.:womanly is used in a complimentary manner about girls and women; womanish is used to indicate an effeminate man and certainly implies criticism.

Semi-affixes

-man: chairman, clergyman, fireman, fisherman

-like: ladylike, childlike

-worthy: noteworthy

-wise: otherwise, clockwise, crosswise

-way(s): anyway(s), always, crossways

-proof: damp-proof, fire-proof, bomb-proof, waterproof

-monger and –wright: completely dead as independent words

The existing combinations with the element -monger have a strongly humiliating character: fashionmonger, scandalmonger. Only the words that existed in the language from before 1500 are emotionally neutral: fishmonger, ironmonger

-wright occurs in playwright, shipwright, wheelwright.

In pre-position like prefixes: mini-bus, mini-skirt, midi-coat, maxi-coat, self-help.

The factors conducing to transition of free forms into semi-affixes are high semantic productivity, adaptability, combinatorial capacity (high valency), and brevity.

2. АЯ в США. Грамматические и фонетические особенности языка.

Phonetic peculiarities of American English
AmE is marked by certain phonetic peculiarities. They include different pronunciation of the words and different intonation patterns. The system of phonemes is the same as in BrE, with the exception of the American retroflexive [r]-sound, and the labialized [h] in such words as what, why, white, wheel, etc.
The following phonetic differences should be mentioned:

1. Vowel system:

· [æ] – AmE, BrE - [a:], as in plant, grass, half, bath

· [Λ] – AmE, BrE - [o], as in body, shot, hot

· [І] or [ə] – AmE, BrE - [ai], as in civilization, specialization

· [u] - AmE instead of [ju] in BrE, as in suit, duty, knew, Tuesday, student

2. Consonant system:

· [t] Is voiced in the intervocalic position and before “l”, as in letter, little, bitter, battle

· [t] Is lost after “n”: twenty, wanted

· [r] Is pronounced in such positions as father, dirt, far, car

Grammatical differences

· Past Simple instead of Present Perfect

· Past participle of "got" is "gotten"

· Will instead of shall

· Going to – gonna

· Using do instead of does in the third person, esp. in negative form

· After verbs demand, insist, require, etc should usually is NOT used. I demanded that he apologize (instead of I demanded that he should apologize in British variant)

· Verbs which are irregular in the British variant, in the American variant are ALWAYS regular

· Take a shower/a bath instead of have a shower/a bath

· Don't need to (do) instead of needn't (do)

· To/in THE hospital instead of to/in hospital

· On the weekend/on weekend instead of at the weekend/at weekend

· On a street instead of in a street

· Different from/than instead of different to/from

· Past Perfect, as a rule, is not used completely

· The adjectives slow & real are used as adverbs: He likes to drive slow (instead of slowly); She's real nice (instead of really)

· Collective nouns are used with verbs in singular instead of plural (the audience was, the government has)

№24

1. Способы образования новых слов в английском языке. Словосложение. Структурная и семантическая классификация сложных слов.

Word-building

· processes of producing new words from the resources of this particular language;

· provides for enlarging and enriching the vocabulary of the language.

Types:

1. Affixation
2. Conversion
3. Composition
4. Shortening (Contraction)
5. Sound-Imitation (Onomatopoeia)
6. Reduplication
7. Back-formation (reversion)
8. Sound-interchange
9. Stress-interchange
10. Blends

Compounding:
1. neutral
• Simple (bedroom)
• Derivational (lady-kill|er)
• Contracted (T-shirt)
2. morphological (stem + cons/vow + stem)
• (AnglO-Saxon)
• S (spokeSman)
• I (handIcraft)
3. syntactic
• Articles + stems
• Prepositions + stems (Jack-of-all-trades)
• Adverbs + stems (leg-pulling)
Compounds:
• Idiomatic (wall-flower)
• Non-idiomatic (classroom)
Criteria:
• Semantic (single concept)
• Phonetic (single stress): a black bird / a blackbird
• Morphological/syntactic: a tall handsome boy / a tallboy
Compounds can be classified according to their structure:
• consisting of simple stem (heartbreak)
• compounds where at least one stem is a derived one (football player)
• where one stem is clipped (Xmas, H-bag (handbag))
• where one of the elements is also a compound (wastepaper basket)
• so-called reduplicative compounds (tick-tick, chow-chow)

2. Пословицы и поговорки.

There are lots of idioms (proverbs, saying).
Ex.: Curiosity killed the cat, but satisfaction brought it back
Sources of idioms:
1. from our everyday life
• to be born with a silver spoon in one’s mouth
• to sail under false colour (прятать истинное лицо)
• to loose track of smb (потерять кого-либо из виду, давно не видеть)
• a leopard can(’t) change its spots
2. from the Bible
• black sheep, lost sheep (заблудшая овца)
• To cast pearls before swine (метать бисер перед свиньями)
3. World literature
• to fight against Windmills
• an ugly duckling (Danish) – гадкий утенок
4. different languages
• to lose face (Chinese)
• “The course of true love has never run smooth” Shakespeare “The 12th night”
• “The course of true reforms has never run smooth in Russia” – “the Times”
5. from history
• to cross the Rubicon (отважиться на какой-то бесповоротный шаг)
• Labours of Hercules
• To bell the cat (взять на себя инициативу в опасном деле)
Sayings may be classified under a number of different terms, of which proverb is probably the best known.
• proverb: a piece of common-sense wisdom expressed in practical, homely terms ("A stitch in time saves nine")
• adage: is a time-honored and widely known saying ("Where there's smoke, there's fire")
• maxim: a general rule of behaviour drawn from practical experience ("Neither a borrower nor a lender be")
• motto: a maxim adopted as a principal of conduct ("Honesty is the best policy")
• epigram: is a brief, witty, or satirical statement that often gains effect through paradox ("The only way to get rid of temptation is to yield to it")
• aphorism: similar to an epigram but more profound rather than witty ("He is a fool that cannot conceal is wisdom")

№25

1. Английский язык в США. Лексические особенности.

AE- one of the dialects of the E language. Vocabulary has features of its own. There are the whole groups of words which belong to Americanisms

1) Historical Americanisms

17 century - first English migrants in America. It was then that E was spoken first in America. The noun "fall" still used in its old meaning autumn/sick to tell that you are unwell. These words although The Americans and The British use them in different meaning, are found in both vocabularies.

2) Proper Americanisms

unlikely to be found in British vocabulary. Formed by the 1 migrants. They faced a lot of new strange things and new words were formed (blue-grass(a sort of grass in North America), sun-fish( fish with a round golden body) Familiar to English, but cannot be found in the English vocabulary.

3) Later proper Americanisms

objects in England and The USA: Underground(BR)-subway(Amer)

4) Borrowings

(ranch(Spanish)/wigwam/pale-face(Indian)

5) American Shortenings

Shortening is a productive way of word—building both in the USA and England.Ex-movies/talkies/gym/mo(for a moment)/circs (for circumstances) /n.g.(for no good)

2. Критерии разграничения сложного слова и словосочетания.

Criteria of distinguishing between compounds and free-word combinations.
Compound words
consist of at least two stems which occur in the language as free forms;
are reproduced and used in speech as lexical units;
are not formed in speech like free-word combinations;
pronounced as lexical units (a red rose, a redskin).
Semantically: convey a single concept and are characterized by a high degree of semantic cohesion-doesn’t work with phras.units.
Phonetically: have a single stress, doesn’t work with compound adjectives (Blackbird, blue-eyed)
Morphologically/syntactically:in word combinations the parts are open to gramm.changes (a tall boy=taller boys), other words can be added in between (a tall handsome boy)

№26

1. Английские территориальные диалекты и диалектная лексика.

Acc. to H. W. Fowler, a dialect is a variety of a language which prevails in a district, with local peculiarities of vocabulary, pronunciation and phrase. (e. g. the Lancashire, Dorsetshire, Norfolk dialects). So dialects are regional forms of English. Standard English is defined by the Random House Dictionary as the English language as it is written and spoken by literate people in both formal and informal usage and that is universally current while incorporating regional differences.
Dialectal peculiarities, especially those of vocabulary, are constantly being incorporated into everyday colloquial speech or slang. From these levels they can be transferred into the common stock, and a few of them even into formal speech and into the literary language. Car, trolley, tram began as dialect words.
On the British Isles there are some local varieties of English which developed from Old English local dialects. There are six groups of them: Lowland /Scottish/, Northern, Western, Midland, Eastern, Southern. These varieties are used in oral speech by the local population. Only the Scottish dialect has its own literature /Robert Berns, a poet, who wrote in “Lallans Scots”/.
One of the best known dialects of British English is the dialect of London - Cockney. Some peculiarities of this dialect can be seen in the first act of «Pigmalion» by B. Shaw, such as : interchange of /v/ and /w/ e.g. wery vell; interchange of /f/ and /0/ , /v/ and / /, e. g/ fing /thing/ and fa:ve / father/; interchange of /h/ and /-/ , e.g. «’eart» for «heart» and «hart» for «art; substituting the diphthong /ai/ by /ei/ e.g. «day» is pronounced /dai/; substituting /au/ by /a:/ , e.g. «house» is pronounced /ha:s/,«now« /na:/ ; substituting /ou/ by /o:/ e.g. «don’t» is pronounced /do:nt/ or substituting it by / / in unstressed positions, e.g. «window» is pronounced /wind /.
Another feature of Cockney is rhyming slang: «hat» is «tit for tat», «wife» is «trouble and strife», «head» is «loaf of bread» etc. There are also such words as «tanner» /sixpence/, «peckish»/hungry/.
Peter Wain in the «Education Guardian» writes about accents spoken by University teachers: «It is a variety of Southern English RP which is different from Daniel Jones’s description. The English, public school leavers speak, is called «marked RP», it has some characteristic features : the vowels are more central than in English taught abroad, e.g. «bleck het»/for «black hat»/, some diphthongs are also different, e.g. «house» is pronounced /hais/. There is less aspiration in /p, b, t, d/.
The American English is practically uniform all over the country, because of the constant transfer of people from one part of the country to the other. However, some peculiarities in New York dialect can be pointed out, such as: there is no distinction between / / and /a: / in words: «ask», «dance» «sand» «bad», both phonemes are possible. The combination «ir» in the words: «bird», «girl» «ear» in the word «learn» is pronoinced as /oi/ e.g. /boid/, /goil/, /loin/.In the words «duty’, «tune» /j/ is not pronounced /du:ti/, /tu:n/.

26 (1)
Local dialects in Great Britain.
5 main groups: (Northern, Midland, Eastern, Western and Southern).
Cockney (Southern)
exists on 2 levels.
- as spoken by the educated lower middle classes (a regional dialect marked by some derivation in pronunciation but few in vocabulary and syntax)
- as spoken by the uneducated (Cockney differs from Standard En. not only in pronunc. but in voc., morphology and syntax).
specific feature - rhyming slang (boots are called daisy roots).
“Estuary English”.
(recent decades - a new dialect) A hybrid of Received Pronunciation and a number of South-Eastern dialects. Use of Cockney words and words from American and Australian E. popular among the young (sounds more “sophisticated”), often it is adopted as a neutral dialect. can be heard in the House of Commons, heard on the BBC.
Yorkshire dialect.
(Northern and Midlands) spoken by the majority of people in En. county of York. Discussed in terms of the three Riding that correspond to the historical administration areas of North, East and South Yorkshire. Linguistic changes – armpit (Standard En. – oxter (North Riding) – armpit (East Riding) – armhole (West Riding). Owing to the Norman Conquest some Yorkshire words have in relation to their Scandinavian counterparts, a testimony to their historical origins: child (Stand. En. ) – bairn (Yorkshire dialect) – barn (Modern Norwegian). The Yorkshire dialect has the variety of idiomatic expressions: allus at t’ last push up - ‘always at the last moment’.
Dialects are said to undergo rapid changes under the pressure of Standard En. taught at schools and the speech habits cultivated by radio, television and other means of mass media.

2. Способы образования новых слов. Сложносокращенные слова. Перемещение ударения. Корневое чередование.

Word-building

· processes of producing new words from the resources of this particular language;

· provides for enlarging and enriching the vocabulary of the language.

Types:

1. Affixation
2. Conversion
3. Composition
4. Shortening (Contraction)
5. Sound-Imitation (Onomatopoeia)
6. Reduplication
7. Back-formation (reversion)
8. Sound-interchange
9. Stress-interchange
10. Blends

2 principle types of word-formation: Word derivation/Word composition
I. Word derivation: affixation and conversion
Affixation - formation of new words with the help of affixes(heartless, from heart)
Conversion - formation of new words by bringing a stem of this word into a different formal paradigm(fall, from to fall)
II. Word composition is the formation of new words by combining 2 or more stems that occur in the language as free forms(house-keeper)
Shortening is the formation of a word by cutting off a part of the word.
1)initial (phone-telephone)
2)medial or syncope (fancy-fantasy)
3)final or apocope (veg-vegetable)
Blending - formation of new words by combining parts of 2 words.
1) additive: smog = smoke and fog
2) restrictive: telecast = television broadcast
Abbreviation - formation of new words from the initial letters.
1) ordinary(UNESCO)
2) alphabetical (BBC)
Sound-interchangeis the formation of the word due to alteration in the phonemic composition of its ROOT.
1)Vowel-interchange(food-to feed)
2) consonant interchange(advice-advise)
Onomatopoeia(Sound imitation) - naming of an action by a more or less exact reproduction of the sound associated with it(cock-a-doodle-do)
Distinctive stress(increase, suspect)
Stress Shift.
Creating new words by adding certain suffixes can cause the main word stress to shift rightward. These suffixes are called strong suffixes.The stress shifts will occur with the addition of the strong suffix if the word is long enough, and if the stress is far back enough on the base.
suffix base derived word
-al (ADJ) politics polítical
-ic alcohol alcohólic
-ity normal normality

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