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Meaning is not to be identified with any of the three points of the triangle.12 Lexicology and Stylistics They have similar problems to study: · meaning; · connotations; · synonymy; · functional differentiation of vocabulary, etc. Stylistics deals with these problems to study style, imagery etc. Lexicology and Grammar · words can belong to different parts of speech: an exercise – to exercise · a form that originally expressed grammatical meaning, for example, the plural of nouns, can become a basis for a new grammatically conditioned lexical meaning (arm – arms (weapon)) · one and the same word may in some of its meanings function as a notional word, while in others it may be a form word (do, have…) · all grammatical meanings have a lexical counterpart that expresses the same concept (tomorrow, future, by and by = shall, will)
2. Способы образования новых слов. Сокращение. Аббревиация. Word-building · processes of producing new words from the resources of this particular language; · provides for enlarging and enriching the vocabulary of the language. Types:
Shortening (Contraction) · new way of word-building; · a high degree of productivity nowadays, especially in American English; · these words are found not only among formal words but also among colloquialisms and slang; · both types of shortenings are characteristic of informal speech in general and of uncultivated speech particularly; · sometimes shortenings can be explained by their brevity · but it takes the speakers some time to clarify the misunderstanding. Shortening:
* okay - originally this initial shortening was spelt O.K. = all correct. The purely oral manner in which sounds were recorded for letters resulted in O.K. whereas it should have been AC. or aysee
Shortening: 1. aphaeresis/apheresis/aphesis - an initial clipping (phone = telephone) 2. apocope - a final clipping (vac = vacation) 3. syncope - a medial clipping (hols = holidays) 4. fore-and-aft clipping - an initial and final clipping (fridge = refrigerator)
Informal shortenings · movie (from moving-picture), · gent (from gentleman), · specs (from spectacles), · circs (from circumstances, e. g. under the circs), · O. Y. (a written acknowledgement of debt, made from I owe you), · lib (from liberty, as in May I take the lib of saying something to you?). Undergraduates' informal speech abounds in words of the type: · lab, prof, vac, hol, co-ed (a girl student at a coeducational school or college).
№2 1. Проблема определения слова. Many scholars have attempted to define the word as a linguistic phenomenon. None of the definitions can be considered totally satisfactory. Despite the achievements of science, essential aspects of the nature of the word escape us. We don’t know much about: · the origin of language and the origin of words · the mechanism by which a speaker's mental process is converted into sound groups called “words” · the process where a listener's brain converts the acoustic phenomena into concepts and ideas · the nature of relations between the word and the referent (object, quality, action denoted by the word) We knowthat the word: · is a unit of communication · can be perceived as the total of the sounds which comprise it · viewed structurally, possesses several characteristics · The modern approach is based on distinguishing between the external (morphological (prefixes, root, suffixes)) and the internal (semantic) structures of the word. The word possesses both external (formal) and semantic unity. *Blackbird (word) – a single grammatical framing (blackbirds); conveys only one concept (the type). *Black bird (word-group) – each constituent can acquire grammatical forms of its own (the blackest birds); each of the meaningful words conveys a separate concept (a creature; a colour).
Conclusion: the word is a speech unit used for the purposes of human communication, materially representing a group of sounds, possessing a meaning, susceptible to grammatical employment and characterised by formal and semantic unity.
2. Способы образования новых слов. Звукоподражание. Редупликация. Дезаффиксация. Word-building · processes of producing new words from the resources of this particular language; · provides for enlarging and enriching the vocabulary of the language. Types: 1. Affixation 2. Conversion 3. Composition 4. Shortening (Contraction) 5. Sound-Imitation (Onomatopoeia) 6. Reduplication 7. Back-formation (reversion) 8. Sound-interchange 9. Stress-interchange 10. Blends Sound-Imitation (onomatopoeia, echoism) – words are made by imitating different kinds of sounds produced by animals, birds, insects, human beings and inanimate objects. Sounds produced by the same kind of animal are frequently represented by different sound groups in different languages: · in E. ducks quack and frogs croak; in R. крякать said about ducks and квакать said about frogs · the E. cock cries cock-a-doodle-doo; the R. ку-ка-ре-ку Some names of animals, birds and insects are also produced by sound-imitation: crow, cuckoo, cricket. There’s also sound-imitation words reproducing sounds made by modern machinery (engine has to ding and fizz and spit and pant…) Reduplication – new words are made by doubling a stem · without any phonetic changes (bye-bye) · with a variation (ping-pong) – gradational reduplication This type is greatly facilitated in Modern E. by the vast number of monosyllables. Stylistically speaking, most words represent informal groups: colloquialisms, slang (walkie-talkie (“a portable radio”)). Back-formation (reversion). The earliest examples are: · to beg <– beggar, · to burgle <– burglar. In the case of the verbs to beg, to burgle the process was reversed: instead of a noun made from a verb by affixation (as in painter from to paint), a verb was produced from a noun by subtraction. Later examples are:
№3 1. Системные отношения между лексическими единицами словарного состава языка. Lexicology studies words as a system. Groups of words, which make a system, can be different in syntagmatic andparadigmatic levels. · Syntagmatic – relationship with other words in connected speech. The semantic structure of the word is analysed in its linear relationships with neighbouring words in connected speech. In other words, the semantic characteristics of the word are observed, described and studied on the basis of its typical contexts. · Paradigmatic – with other words in the vocabulary system. The word is studied in its relationships with other words in the vocabulary system. A word may be studied in comparison with other: · of similar meaning (work, n. – labour, n.; to refuse, v. – to reject v. – to decline, v) · of opposite meaning (busy, adj. – idle, adj.; to accept, v – to reject, v) · of different stylistic characteristics (man, n – chap, n – guy, n) Consequently, the main problems of paradigmatic studies are synonymy, antonymy, functional styles. 2. Семасиология. Референтный и функциональный подходы Semasiology studies the meaning (there is no universally accepted definition of meaning). The meaning can be in: · words/groups of words · morphemes · sentences · texts The main objects of semasiological study are: semantic development of words, its classification, distinctive features and types of lexical meaning, polysemy, semantic structure of word, synonyms, antonyms. Meaning can be studied from: 1. the referential approach seeks to formulate the essence of meaning by establishing the interdependence between words and the things or concepts they denote The best known referential model of meaning is "basic triangle": 1) the sound form of the linguistic sign (sign or symbol); 2) the concept underlying this sound form (thought or reference; abstract, reflect the features of the objects; meanings are different in different languages. Words expressing identical concepts may have different meanings). 3) the actual referent (the part of reality to which the sign refers (thing meant). Meaning is not to be identified with any of the three points of the triangle. The connection between this particular sound-cluster and the meaning of the word is conventional. [kot] – кот, cot (кроватка). The functional approach studies the functions of a word in speech and is less concerned with what meaning is than with how it works. The meaning of a linguistic unit may be studied only through its relation to other linguistic-units and not through its relation to either concept or referent. Thus, the meaning of the 2 words “move and movement” is different because they function in speech differently.
№4 1. Лексикография. Типы словарей. Lexicography is a part of lexicology, а science about compiling dictionaries. The aim of lexicography is the semantic, formal, and functional description of all individual words. Dictionaries: I classification: 1. encyclopedic – definitions, general inf about events, things, notions 2. linguistic – word-list dictionaries, linguistic information: pronunciation, spelling, grammar information, translation Linguistic: - general – words of the language without any restrictions - restricted = special(-ized) – with some limits (ex. phraseological)
II classification:
2. Денотативное и коннотативное значение слова. Типы коннотативного значения. The denotative meaning classifies our experience and names for the listener some objects spoken about. Fulfilling the significative and the communicative functions of the word it is present in every word and may be regarded as the central factor in the functioning of language. The expressive function of the language with its orientation towards the speaker’s feelings, and the pragmatic function dealing with the effect of words upon listeners are rendered in connotations. Unlike the denotative meaning, connotations are optional. The description of the denotative meaning is a difficult task because there is no clear-cut demarcation line between the semantic features, strictly necessary for each definition, and those that are optional. A CAT in Hornby: “a small fur-covered animal often kept as a pet in the house”. Longman: a cat is “a small animal with soft fur and sharp teeth and claws, often kept as a pet, or in buildings to catch mice”. Types of connotations: · stylistic (horse – neutral, steed – poetic, nag – slang, gee-gee – baby language; to be off, to clear out (coll.), to beat it, to hoof it, to take the air (sl.), to depart, to retire, to withdraw (formal)) · emotional or affective – the nature of the emotion they imply (to beseech means 'to ask eagerly and also anxiously') · evaluative – conveys the speaker's attitude (well-known – famous – notorious – celebrated, the adjective notorious bears a negative evaluative connotation and celebrated a positive one) · of degree / intensity (to like – to admire – to love – to adore – to worship) · of duration (to stare – to glare – to gaze – to glance; to flash (brief) – to blaze (lasting) · causative (to blush, to render: people mostly blush from modesty, shame or embarrassment, but usually redden from anger or indignation) · of manner (to stroll – to stride – to trot – to pace – to swagger – to stagger – to stumble all denote different ways and types of walking) · of attendant / preventing circumstances (to peep – at through a hole, opening, a curtain; to peer – at in darkness, through the fog) · of attendant features (each describes a special type of human beauty: beautiful – classical features, handsome – a tall stature, pretty – small delicate features)
№5 1. Метод трансформации, непосредственных составляющих, статистический
Statistical approach proved essential in the selection of vocabulary items of a foreign language for teaching purposes. Very few people know more than 10% of the words in their mother tongue. Out of approximately 500 000 words listed in Oxford English dictionary the active vocabulary of an educated Englishman comprises no more than 30 000 words of these 4 000 - 5 000 are presumed to be useful for daily needs. It is known that comparatively small group of words makes up the bulk of any text. It was found that approximately 1300 – 1500 most frequent words make up 85% of all words occurring in the text e. g. if we take the word “room” we can find some meanings of the word: 1) “room”- denoting “space” as in “take less room, not enough room to do smth”; 2) part of a house as in “sitting-room” ; 3) used in plural = lodgings as in “to get rooms”. Statistical analysis shows that most frequently the word is used in its second meaning – 83% of all occurrences of the word in different texts, 12% of all takes its first meaning – “space”, only 2% takes the third meaning of the word.
It was discovered that combinations of units are usually structured into hierarchial sets of binary constructions .e. g. in the word-group “a black dress in severe style“ we do not relate the indefinite article “a” to adjective “black”, “black” to “dress”, “dress” to “in”, “in” to “severe”, “severe” to “style”. We set up a structure which may be represented as “a black dress” “in severe style”. Thus, the fundamental aim of immediate constituents analysis is to segment a set of lexical units into two maximally independent sequences, these maximally independent sequences are called immediate constituents. The further segmentation of immediate constituents results in ultimate constituents - two-facet units that cannot be segmented into smaller units having both sound-form and meaning: a / white / bag / in / elegant / style, which means that further segmentation is impossible for no meaning can be found e. g. the ultimate constituents of the phrase given are “a”, ”black”, “dress”, “ in”, “severe”, “style”.
As distributional patterns are in a number of cases polysemantic, transformational procedures are of help not only in the analysis of semantic sameness/difference of the lexical units, but also in the analysis of the factors that account for their polysemy. Word-groups of identical distributional structure when re-patterned show that the semantic relations between words consequently the meaning may be different .e. g. A pattern “possessive pronoun”+”noun” (his car, his failure, his arrest, his kindness). According to transformational analysis the meaning of each word-group may be represented as: he has a car, he failed, he was arrested, he is kind. In each of the cases different meaning is revealed: possession, action , passive action , quality.
2. Средства создания образности. All they serve to create additional expressive, evaluative, subjective connotations. In fact we deal with the intended substitution of the existing names approved by long usage and fixed in dictionaries, prompted by the speaker’s subjective original view and evaluation of things. Each type of intended substitution results in a stylistic device called also a trope. A simile is a figure of speech comparing two unlike things, often introduced with the words "like", "as", or "than".(Curley was flopping like a fish on a line)
a) similarity of shape, e.g. head (of a cabbage) b) similarity of position, e.g. foot (of a page) c) similarity of function, behaviour e.g. a whip (an official in the British Parliament whose duty is to see that members were present at the voting) d) similarity of colour, e.g. orange, hazel, chestnut etc. In some cases we have a complex similarity. A special type of metaphor is when Proper names become common nouns, e.g. a Don Juan - a lover of many women etc.
a) the material of which an object is made may become the name of the object , e.g. a glass b) the name of the place may become the name of the people or of an object placed there, e.g. the House - members of Parliament, c) names of musical instruments may become names of musicians, e.g. the violin d) the name of some person may become a common noun, e.g. sandwich» was named after Lord Sandwich. e) names of inventors very often become terms to denote things they invented, e.g. «watt» , «om», «rentgen» etc f) some geographical names can also become common nouns through metonymy, e.g. holland (linen fabrics)
Hyperbole is often used to form phraseological units, e.g. «to make a mountain out of a molehill», «to split hairs» etc.
a)The representation of abstract ideas or principles by characters, figures, or events in narrative, dramatic, or pictorial form b) a story, picture, or play employing such representation. John Bunyan's Pilgrim's Progress and Herman Melville's Moby Dick are allegories.
They appear in a variety of contexts (extremely average).
№6 1. Сопоставительный метод, дистрибутивный, компонентного анализа
Сan be carried out at the three linguistic levels: - phonology - grammar - lexis vocabulary This method helps to solve interference. It deals with problem pairs (head-голова but голова сахара-a loaf of sugar)
Aim = to establish family relationship and to find out their position, classification.
A certain component of the word-meaning is described when the word is identified distributionally. e.g. The boy — home the missing word is easily identified as a verb — The boy went, came, ran, home. We see that the component of meaning that is distributionally identified is actually the part-of-speech meaning but not the individual lexical meaning of the word under analysis. The sameness / difference in distribution is indicative of sameness / difference in part-of-speech meaning. Words have different lexical meanings in different distributional patterns (to treat smb well-to act or behave well; to treat smb to ice-cream-to supply with food).
Human, female-semantic markers, young-semantic distinguishers. It is useful in the analysis of hyponimic groups in the investigation in the semantic structure of synonyms.
2. Многозначность (полисемия) слов. Основное и переносное значение. «Polysemy» – «plurality of meanings», exists only in the language, not in speech. A word which has more than one meaning is called polysemantic. There are two processes of the semantic development of a word:
Each secondary meaning can be traced to the primmary meaning. E.g. «face» – the primary meaning denotes «the front part of the human head». Front position the meanings: the front part of a watch, the front part of a building, the front part of a playing card were formed.
It is difficult to trace some meanings to the primary one. E.g. in the word «crust» the primary meaning «hard outer part of bread» developed a secondary meaning «hard part of anything /a pie, a cake/», then the meaning «harder layer over soft snow» was developed, then «a sullen gloomy person», then «impudence» were developed. Here the last meanings have nothing to do with the primary ones. In such cases homonyms appear in the language = the split of polysemy.
№7 1. Нейтральная и стилистически маркированная лексика Neutral words (basic vocabulary) - form the bulk of the English vocabulary and are used in both literary and colloquial language. They are the main source of synonymy and polysemy. Don’t have a special stylistic colouring and are devoid of emotional meaning => can be used in any language style, in all kinds of situations (formal, informal), every day and everywhere. They show a greater stability in comparison with words of the other strata. Basic vocabulary can be recognized by entire lack of other connotations. Meanings are broad, general (house, bread, summer). “walk” – basic word “to stroll”, “to stride”, “to trot”, “to stagger” - the synonyms The main opposition lies between words of literary stylistic layer (words of Standard English) and those of non-literary stylistic layer (words of Sub-Standard English). Words of literary stylistic layer are divided into:
Words of non-literary stylistic layer (Sub-standard English) include: Colloquialisms,Slangisms,Professionalisms,Vulgarisms,Regional dialectisms, jargonisms, historisms, historicism, archaic words, occasionalisms, neologisms. Neutral words and stylistically marked strata of the vocabulary do not exist independently but are closely interrelated. Most stylistically marked words have their neutral counterparts in the basic vocabulary
2. Семантическая структура многозначного слова. Понятие «лексико-семантический вариант» (ЛСВ). Polysemy is characteristic of most words in many languages. All the lexical and lexico-grammatical variants of a word taken together form its semantic structure or semantic paradigm 3 lexico-grammatical variants of the word “youth” may be distinguished: - an abstract uncountable noun, as in ‘the friends of one’s youth’ (the state of being young, and the other the time of being young) because they are expressed by the same sound complex and are interrelated in meaning as they all contain the semantic component ‘young’ and can be explained by means of one another - a countable personal noun ‘a young man’ - a collective noun ‘young men and women’ having only one form. Other oppositions are: - concrete/abstract - main/ primary - secondary/central and so on. Every meaning in language and every difference in meaning is signalled either by the form of the word itself or by context.
№8 1. Стилистически маркированная лексика. Разговорная лексика Words differ not only in their emotive charge but also in their stylistic reference. Stylistically words can be roughly subdivided into: · literary – the greater part are words of general use, possessing no specific stylistic reference and known as neutral words. · neutral – we can distinguish two major subgroups — standard colloquial words and literary or bookish words. This may be best illustrated by comparing words almost identical in their denotational meaning (‘parent — father — dad’). In comparison with the word father which is stylistically neutral, dad stands out as colloquial and parent is felt as bookish. The stylistic reference of standard colloquial words is clearly observed when we compare them with their neutral synonyms, e.g. chum — friend, rot — nonsense, etc. This is also true of literary or bookish words, such as, e.g., to presume (cf. to suppose), to anticipate (cf. to expect) and others. · colloquial layers: 1) Common colloquial words. 2) Slang, i.e. words which are often regarded as a violation of the norms of Standard English, e.g. governor for ‘father’, missus for ‘wife’, a gag for ‘a joke’, dotty for ‘insane’. 3) Professionalisms, i.e. words used in narrow groups bound by the same occupation, such as, e.g., lab for ‘laboratory’, hypo for ‘hypodermic syringe’, a buster for ‘a bomb’, etc. 4) Jargonisms, i.e. words marked by their use within a particular social group and bearing a secret and cryptic character, e.g. a sucker — ‘a person who is easily deceived’, a squiffer — ‘a concertina’. 5) Vulgarisms – coarse words, aren’t generally used in public (hell, damn) 6) Dialectical words, e.g. lass, kirk, etc. 7) Colloquial coinages, e.g. newspaperdom, allrightnik, etc.
2. Понятие «сема». Типы сем. A seme is the smallest unit of a meaning, refers to a single characteristic of a sememe, distinguished on the basis of oppositions by method of componential analysis. A seme is not expressed in a word in any material unit but it’s revealed & singled out through interrelations of the word with other words on a paradigmatic & syntagmatic levels. The term was introduced in the 1930s and developed in the 1960s. It is the result produced when determining the minimal elements of meaning, which enables one to describe words multlingually. Semes can be: 1) Semantic markers are semes which are identical, exist in all the words 2) Semantic distinguishers differentiate two or more meanings 3) Potential semes appear in the context Ex. Piglet [animal – semantic marker] + [non-adult - semantic distinguisher] [male or female – potential semes] Sow [animal – semantic marker] + [adult – semantic distinguisher] + [female – semantic distinguisher]
№9 1. Книжные слова. Основные характеристики и группы. Literary (bookish) words are not stylistically homogeneous. Besides general-literary (bookish) words, e.g. harmony, calamity, alacrity, etc., we may single out various specific subgroups, namely: 1) terms or scientific words such as, e g., renaissance, genocide, teletype, etc.; 2) poetic words and archaisms such as, e.g., whilome — ‘formerly’, aught — ‘anything’, ere — ‘before’, albeit — ‘although’, fare — ‘walk’, etc., tarry — ‘remain’, nay — ‘no’; 3) barbarisms and foreign words, such as, e.g., bon mot — ‘a clever or witty saying’, apropos, faux pas, bouquet, etc.
2. Изменение значений. Причины. Расширение и сужение значения. Change of meaning (the old meaning is completely replaced by the new one): meat (OE) = "food" ; meat (ModE) = "flesh of animals used as food" Development of meaning (when a new meaning and the one on the basis of which it is formed coexist in the semantic structure of the word) = transference ("transference of meaning" is a serious mistake) №10 1. «термин». Характеристики. Способы образования терминов Terms: • any word used to name a notion of some special field of knowledge • greatest part of vocabulary • ideal term should be monosemantic • only meaning possible – denotational free meaning • Terminology is always a system. Origin of terms: - formation with the help of clipping, abbreviation (teletext, extremely low frequency → ELF) - the use of combining form from Latin and Greek (microphone) - borrowing from another terminological system within the same language - word formation - borrowing from other languages (metaphor, metonymy, synecdoche) The everyday English vocabulary, especially the part of a high index of frequency and polysemy, constitutes a constant source for the creation of new terms. Due to the expansion of popular interest in the achievements of science and technology new terms appear more and more frequently in newspapers and popular magazines and even in fiction. The development of terminology is the most complete reflection of the history of science, culture and industry. 2. Лексическая омонимия. Причины возникновения омонимии Homonyms are words identical in sound-form or in written form but different in meaning Classification: • Homographs (graphic form) tear n — tear v • homophones (sound-form) sea n / see v • Perfect homonyms (meaning) case n — ’something that has happened’- case n — ‘a box, a container’ According to Smirnizkii perfect homonyms (lexical) can be: 1) Full - represent the same category of part of speech and have the same paradigm (match, n – матч; match, n – спичка) 2) Partial a. simple lexico-grammatical - belong to the same category of part of speech and have one identical form (lay, v (inf.); lay, v (to lie)) b. complex lexico-grammatical - different categories of parts of speech and have one identical form (rose, n; rose, v (to rise)) c. lexical - the same category of part of speech and are identical only in their corresponding forms (to can, v; can, v (modal)) Sources of homonymy: • diverging meaning development of a polysemantic word -> different meanings of the same word move so far away from each other that they come to be regarded as two separate units ME. Flour = ‘the flower’ and ‘the finest part of wheat’, затем разошлось на 2 самостоятельных flower и flour • converging sound development of 2 or more different words -> the coincidence of 2 or more words, were phonetically distinct at an earlier date - MnE. I [ai] and eye [ai] (I от OE. Ic, eye от OE. eаzе) - the verb/the noun lexico-grammatical homonyms MnE. love — (to) love OE. lufu — lufian
№11 1. Стилистически маркированная лексика. Неологизмы и окказиональные Stylistically neutral – basic vocabulary, most of the English words. Stylistically marked words: formal and informal, belong to particular styles. Neologism is a newly coined word that may be in the process of entering common use, but has not yet been accepted into mainstream language, but is found in a dictionary. They appear through: - combining existing words (compound noun and adjective) - giving words new and unique suffixes or prefixes - abbreviation or acronym - intentionally rhyming with existing words - playing with sounds Can become popular • by way of mass media • the Internet • word of mouth, including academic discourse When a word or phrase is no longer "new", it is no longer a neologism. Occasionalism (nonce word) - is used in a particular situation - is invented by an author for particular occasions - appear mainly through the combination of an existing word with a familiar prefix or suffix (balconyfull) - can remain in a language due to its beauty or simplicity of meaning. - can’t be found in dictionary
2. Полисемия и омонимия. Трудности разграничения. Criteria to distinguish between polysemy and homonymy: 1) semantic criterion (foot of the man & foot of the mountain (connection-polysemy)) - the differentiation between related and unrelated meanings ! can`t be applied to the lexico-grammatical homonyms (conversives) ! 2) distribution (paper — (to) paper - article + paper + verb; (to) paper can never be found in identical distribution) - lexico-grammatical and grammatical homonyms, but it often fails in cases of lexical homonymy, not differentiated by means of spelling 3) spelling (flower – flour)
№12 1. Стилистически маркированная лексика. Архаизмы, историзмы. Stylistically neutral – basic vocabulary, most of the English words Stylistically marked words: formal and informal, belong to particular styles Archaic words – are not used in present day speech. Historisms - words denoting objects and phenomena which are things of the past and no longer exist. Reasons to disappear: 1) modern synonyms, usually foreign => archaic words proper (main => ocean, to deem => to consider) 2) a subject has disappeared (hauberk – кольчуга, yeoman – крестьянин (12 век)) Such words can be sometimes found in: • poetry • Law • science • Technology • Geography • ritual writing and speech
2. Омонимия. Типы омонимов. Homonyms are words different in meaning but identical in sound of spelling or both in sound and spelling. Homonyms can appear in the language as a result of the split of polysemy and also as a result of levelling of grammar inflexions, when different parts of speech become identical. Homonyms appear as a result of: 1. The phonetic convergence of 2 words of different pronunciation & meaning Race → a) people derives from Old Norwegian “ras” b) running, from French “race” 2. The semantic divergence or loss of semantic bond between 2 words polysemantically related before Pupil → a) scholar b) apple of an eye (зрачок) Types: • Homographs are words identical in spelling, but different both in their sound-form and meaning tear n [tɪə] — ‘a drop of water that comes from the eye’ tear v [tɛə] — ‘to pull apart by force’ • Homophones are words identical in sound-form but different both in spelling and in meaning Sea – see Son – sun • Perfect homonyms are words identical both in spelling and in sound-form but different in meaning Case n — ’something that has happened’ Case n — ‘a box, a container’ Full homonyms represent the same category of part of speech and have the same paradigm: match, n – матч, match, n – спичка Partial homonyms: 1) simple lexico-grammatical belong to the same category of part of speech and have one identical form (lay, v (inf.) - lay, v (to lie)) 2) complex lexico-grammatical different categories of parts of speech and have one identical form (rose, n- rose, v (to rise)) 3) lexical the same category of part of speech and are identical only in their corresponding forms (to can, v - can, v (modal))
№13 1. Основной словарный фонд языка, его особенности. English words can be subdivided into two main sets:
Native words belong to the original English word stock, as known from the earliest available manuscripts of the Old English period. Though they constitute only 30% of the English vocabulary, they are the most frequent used words. Native words are subdivided into two large groups (по Дубeнец): Indo-European and Common Germanic. The oldest layer of words in English is words from Indo-European language. There are several semantic groups of them: • words denoting kinship: father (Vater, pater), mother (Mutter, mater), son (Sohn), daughter (Tocher) • words denoting important objects and phenomena of nature: the sun (die Sohne), water (Wasser) • names of animals and birds: cat (Katze), goose (Gans), wolf (Wolf) • names of parts of human body: heart (Herz) • often used words: sit(sitzen), stand (stehen) • numerals: two(zwei), three (drei) A larger group of native vocabulary is Common Germanic words (German, Norwegian, Dutch, Icelandic). Nouns: summer, winter, storm, rain, ice, ground, bridge, house, life, shoe. Verbs: bake, burn, buy, drive, hear, keep, learn, make, meet. Adj: broad, dead, deaf, deep. Native words have a great word-building capacity, form a lot of phraseological units, they are mostly polysemantic.
2. Синонимия. Критерии синонимии. Synonyms are traditionally described as words different in sound-form but identical or similar in meaning. This definition has been criticized on many points. 1. It seems impossible to speak of identical or similar of words as this part of the definition cannot be applied to polysemantic words. It is incredible that polysemantic words could be synonymous in all their meanings. The verb “look” is usually treated as a synonym of “see”, “watch”, “observe” etc, but in another of its meanings it is not synonymous with this group of words but rather with the verbs “seem”, “appear” (ex. “to look at somebody” and “to look pale”). The number of synonymic sets of a polysemantic word tends as a rule to be equal to the number of individual meanings the word possesses. 2. It seems impossible to speak of identity or similarity of lexical meaning as a whole as it is only the denotational component that may be described as identical or similar. We must take into consideration the connotational meaning of the word. Ex. to look (denotation): to stare - to look steadily, lastingly, in surprise, curiosity (connotations); To look: to glare – to look steadily, lastingly, in anger, rage, fury 3. Identity of meaning is very rare even among monosemantic words. In fact, cases of complete synonymy are very few and are, as a rule, in technical vocabulary (quinquagenarian – a middle-aged person) 4. The criterion of interchangeability or substitution in linguistic contexts. Synonyms are words which can replace each other in any given context without the slightest alteration in the denotational or connotational meaning. The contextual approach invites criticism for many reasons. Words interchangeable in any given context are very rare. Words synonymous in lexical contexts may display no synonimity in others. Thus a more acceptable definition of synonyms seems to be the following: synonyms are words different in their sound-form, but similar in their denotational meaning and interchangeable at least in some context. Ex.: He glared at her (He looked at her angrily). He gazed at her (He looked at her steadily and attentively; probably with admiration or interest). He glanced at her (He looked at her briefly and turned away). He peered at her (He tried to see her better, but something prevented: darkness, fog, weak eyesight). These few simple examples show that each of the synonyms creates an entirely new situation which so sharply differs from the rest that any attempt at "interchanging" anything can only destroy the utterance devoiding it of any sense at all. №14 1. Латинские и греческие заимствования, из роль в пополнении словарного состава английского языка. The first effect of foreign influence is observed in the volume of its vocabulary. The English language, more than any other modern language, has absorbed foreign elements in its vocabulary. But the adoption of foreign words must not be understood as mere quantitative change. Any importation into the lexical system brings about semantic and stylistic changes in the words of this language and changes in its synonymic groups. Among words of Romanic origin borrowed from Latin during the period when the British Isles were a part of the Roman Empire, there are such words as: street, port, wall etc. Many Latin and Greek words came into English during the Adoption of Christianity in the 6-th century. At this time the Latin alphabet was borrowed which ousted the Runic alphabet. These borrowings are usually called classical borrowings. Here belong Latin words: alter, cross, dean, and Greek words: church, angel, devil, anthem. Latin and Greek borrowings appeared in English during the Middle English period due to the Great Revival of Learning. These are mostly scientific words because Latin was the language of science at the time. These words were not used as frequently as the words of the Old English period, some of them were partly assimilated grammatically, e.g. formula - formulae. Here also belong such words as: memorandum, minimum, maximum, veto etc. Classical borrowings continue to appear in Modern English as well. Mostly they are words formed with the help of Latin and Greek morphemes. There are quite a lot of them in medicine (appendicitis, aspirin), in chemistry (acid, valency, alkali), in technique (engine, antenna, biplane, airdrome), in politics (socialism, militarism), names of sciences (zoology, physics). In philology most of terms are of Greek origin (homonym, archaism, lexicography). The word car, e.g., ultimately goes back to Latin carrus which meant ‘a four-wheeled wagon’ Borrowing as a means of replenishing the vocabulary of present-day English is of much lesser importance and is active mainly in the field of scientific -terminology. It should be noted that many terms are often made up of borrowed morphemes, mostly morphemes from classical languages. The present-day English vocabulary, especially its terminological layers, is constantly enriched by words made up of morphemes of Latin and Greek origin such as words with the morphemes -tron used chiefly in the field of electronics, e.g. mesotron, cyclotron, etc.; tele-, e.g. telecast, telelecture, telediagnosis, -in, e.g. protein, penicillin; -scope, e.g. iconoscope, oscilloscope; meta-, e.g. meta-culture, metaprogram; para- meaning ‘related to, near’, e.g. paralinguistic, parabiospheric; video-, e.g. videodisk, videophone, etc.
2. Синонимия. Типы синонимов. Synonyms are words of the same category of parts of speech. They convey the same concept but differ in shades of meaning or in stylistic characteristics. They’re no two absolutely identical words because connotations, ways of usage, frequency of occurrence are different. Types: 1. Idiographic – different in shades of meaning (To happen – to occur – to befall – to chance) 2. Stylistic – differ in stylistic characteristics (child – infant – kid; to die – to kick the bucket) 3. Absolute– very few in the language, mostly terms (concept – notion) 4. Dialectical synonyms – belong to different dialects · Lift – elevator · Queue – line · Autumn – fall Contextual synonyms Context can emphasize some certain semantic trades & suppress other semantic trades; words with different meaning can become synonyms in a certain context · Tasteless – dull · Active – curious · Curious – responsive 6. Cognitive synonyms – the distinction between such items lies not so much in their inner lexical meaning, but in the sphere of their actual usage, the actual meanings of the words reflect relations which hold between lexical items within the communicative space (forest – woods; to stare – to gaze) 7. Functional synonyms – the term is not lexicological proper as it refers to different syntactic units capable of performing one and the same syntactic function (ex. Subordinate Object Clause and Complex Object constructions are functional synonyms) 8. Referential synonyms – a vague term, concerns co-referential expressions, when one denotation can be defined differently from different points of view and in different aspects: ex. names Walter Scott and the author of 'Ivanhoe' are co-referential because they refer to one and the same denotation – Sir Walter Scott
№15 1. Скандинавские заимствования English belongs to the Germanic group of languages and there are borrowings from Scandinavian, German and Holland languages, though their number is much less than borrowings from Romanic languages.
2. Синонимический ряд. Доминанта синонимического ряда. Synonyms- are two or more words belonging to the same part of speech and possessing one or more identical or nearly identical denotational meanings, interchangeable in some context. Synonyms form a synonymic group. Each synonymic group comprises a dominant element. This synonymic dominant is the most general term potentially containing the specific features rendered by all other members of the synonymic group.
№16 1. Французские заимствования Frenchborrowings which came into English after 1650 retain their spelling, e.g. consonants «p», «t», «s» are not pronounced at the end of the word (buffet, coup, debris), Specifically French combination of letters «eau» /ou/ can be found in the borrowings: beau, chateau, troussaeu. Some of digraphs retain their French pronunciation: ‘ch’ is pronounced as /sh/, e.g. chic, parachute, ‘qu’ is pronounced as /k/ e.g. bouquet, «ou» is pronounced as /u:/, e.g. rouge; some letters retain their French pronunciation, e.g. «i» is pronounced as /i:/, e,g, chic, machine; «g» is pronounced as /3/, e.g. rouge. There are the following semantic groups of French borrowings: a) words relating to government : administer, empire, state, government; b) words relating to military affairs: army, war, banner, soldier, battle; c) words relating to jury: advocate, petition, inquest, sentence, barrister; d) words relating to fashion: luxury, coat, collar, lace, pleat, embroidery; e) words relating to jewelry: topaz, emerald, ruby, pearl ; f) words relating to food and cooking: lunch, dinner, appetite, to roast, to stew. Words were borrowed from French into English after 1650, mainly through French literature, but they were not as numerous and many of them are not completely assimilated. There are the following semantic groups of these borrowings: a) words relating to literature and music: belle-lettres, conservatorie, brochure, nuance, piruette, vaudeville; b) words relating to military affairs: corps, echelon, fuselage, manouvre; c) words relating to buildings and furniture: entresol, chateau, bureau; d) words relating to food and cooking: ragout, cuisine. 2. Эвфемизмы как особый тип синонимии. There are words in every language which people instinctively avoid because they are considered indecent, indelicate, rude, too direct or impolite. Euphemism – a word or phrase used to replace an unpleasant word or expression by a conventionally more acceptable one. e.g. 'to die' has: • the following euphemisms: to pass away, to expire, to be no more, to depart, to join the majority, to be gone • the more facetious euphemisms: to kick the bucket, to give up the ghost So euphemisms are synonyms which aim at producing a deliberately mild effect. Euphemism is sometimes figuratively called "a whitewashing device". The linguistic peculiarity of euphemism lies in the fact that every euphemism must call up a definite synonym in the mind of the reader or listener. Euphemisms may be divided into several groups according to their spheres of application. The most recognized are the following: religious – moral – medical – parliamentary. All the euphemisms are used to avoid the so-called social taboos. The life of euphemisms is short. They very soon become closely associated with the referent (the object named) and give way to a newly coined word or combination of words, which, being the sign of a sign, throws another veil over an unpleasant or indelicate concept.
№17 1. Причины заимствования слов. Способы заимствования. Each time two nations come into close contact, certain borrowings are a natural consequence. The nature of the contact may be different. It may be wars, invasions or conquests when foreign words are in effect imposed upon the reluctant conquered nation. There are also periods of peace when the process of borrowing is due to trade and international cultural relations. These latter circumstances are certainly more favourable for stimulating the borrowing process, for during invasions and occupations the natural psychological reaction of the oppressed nation is to reject and condemn the language of the oppressor. The Norman culture of the 11th c. was certainly superior to that of the Saxons. The result was that an immense number of French words forced their way into English vocabulary. Yet, linguistically speaking, this seeming defeat turned into a victory. Instead of being smashed and broken by the powerful intrusion of the foreign element, the English language managed to preserve its essential structure and vastly enriched its expressive resources with the new borrowings. Sometimes it is done to fill a gap in vocabulary. When the Saxons borrowed Latin words for "butter", "plum", "beet", they did it because their own vocabularies lacked words for these new objects. For the same reason the words potato and tomato were borrowed by English from Spanish when these vegetables were first brought to England by the Spaniards. There may be a word (or even several words) which expresses some particular concept, so that there is no gap in the vocabulary and there does not seem to be any need for borrowing. Yet, one more word is borrowed which means almost the same, — almost, but not exactly. It is borrowed because it represents the same concept in some new aspect, supplies a new shade of meaning or a different emotional colouring. This type of borrowing enlarges groups of synonyms and greatly provides to enrich the expressive resources of the vocabulary. That is how the Latin cordial was added to the native friendly, the French desire to wish, the Latin admire and the French adore, like and love. Borrowings enter the language into 2 ways: • through the oral speech (immediate contact between the people; words are usually short; in the early period of history) • through the written speech (by indirect contact through books; preserve their spelling; some peculiarities of sound system) TO SUM UP: Latin borrowings: Among words of Romanic origin borrowed from Latin during the period when the British Isles were a part of the Roman Empire, there are such words as: street, port, wall etc. Many Latin and Greek words came into English during the Adoption of Christianity in the 6-th century. At this time the Latin alphabet was borrowed which ousted the Runic alphabet. These borrowings are usually called classical borrowings. Here belong Latin words: alter, cross, dean, and Greek words: church, angel, devil, anthem. Latin and Greek borrowings appeared in English during the Middle English period due to the Great Revival of Learning. These are mostly scientific words because Latin was the language of science at the time. These words were not used as frequently as the words of the Old English period, therefore some of them were partly assimilated grammatically, e.g. formula - formulae. Here also belong such words as: memorandum, minimum, maximum, veto etc. French borrowings: Most of them came into E during the Norman Conquest. French influenced not only the vocabulary of E but also its spelling, bcs French scribes wrote documents as the local population was mainly illiterate, and the ruling class was French. Italian borrowings: bank, volcano, granite, bronze, lava. Spanish borrowings: cargo, tango, guitar, cocoa, banana, apricot.
2. Антонимия. Типы антонимов. Antonyms – are words belonging to the same part of speech and to the same semantic field, identical in style and nearly identical in distribution, associated and often used together, so their denotative meaning render contrary or contradictory notions. There exist different classifications of antonyms. Structurally, antonyms can be divided into antonyms of: • the same root (do – undo, cheerful – cheerless) • different roots (day – night) Semantically, antonyms may be classified into: 1) Contrary A. – gradable, don’t deny one another, refer to some norm (cold (-cool-) – (-warm-) hot) 2) Contradictory A. – not gradable, deny one another (male-female, live-die) 
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