Architecture: its forms and functions

1. Read, translate the text, find words regarding to your special terms and explain their meaning:

Architecture is the art or science of planning, building and structures. Without consideration of structural principles, materials, social and economic requirements a building cannot take form. But without aesthetical quality inherent in its form a building cannot be considered as a work of architecture as well.

From the very beginning of construction in human history lots of architectural skills, systems and theories have been evolved for the construction of the buildings, which have housed nations and generations of people in any kind of their activity. Writings on architecture are almost as old as writing itself. Books on the theory of architecture, on the art of buildings, and on the aesthetical view of buildings exist in great number. The oldest book, which sets forth the principles, upon which buildings should be designed and which aim is to guide the architect, is the work of Markus Vitruvius Pollio written in the first century B. C.

Architecture is an art. Its nowadays expression should be creative and consequently new. The heritage of the past cannot be ignored, but it must be expressed in modern terms. There exists an evident paradox in the coexistence of change and survival in every period of human civilization. This paradox of change and repetition is clearly illustrated in any architectural style.

Architecture is also the style or manner of building in a particular country or period of history. There are widely known examples of Gothic architecture all round the globe. During many centuries mankind admires the architecture of ancient Greece or Roman Empire as well.

Nearly two thousand years ago the Roman architect Vitruvius listed three basic factors in architecture. They are convenience, strength and beauty. These three factors have been present and are always interrelated in the best constructions till the 21st century. No true architect could think of any of them without almost automatically considering the other two as well. Thus, architectural design entails not only the necessity to study various solutions for convenience, structure and appearance as three separate processes. Architectural design also includes the necessity to keep in mind the constant interaction of these factors. It's impossible for an architect first plan a building from the point of view of convenience, and then make the design of a strong construction around his plan to shelter it. Then, as a final touch, try to adjust and decorate the whole to make it pretty. Any design evolving from such kind of work will produce only a confused, incoherent, and unsatisfactory building. When speaking about any truly great building we cannot but say that every element in it has a triple implication or significance.

This triple nature of architectural design is one of the reasons why architecture is a difficult art. It needs some unique type of imagination as well as long years of training and experience to make a designer capable of getting requite in the light of these three factors—use, construction and aesthetic effect — simultaneously. The designer must have a good knowledge as of engineering so of building materials. This knowledge will enable him to create economically strong and practical construction. The designer, in addition, must possess the creative imagination, which will enable him to integrate the plan and the construction into the harmonious whole. The architect's feeling of satisfaction in achieving such integration is one of his/her (their) greatest rewards.

Key vocabulary/expressions:

entail – вызывать

evolve – развиваться

incoherent – непоследовательный, несвязный

inherent – присущий, неотъемлемый

heritage – наследство

requite – вознаграждение

triple – тройной, утраивать

2. Find synonyms to the following words from the text:

art of building have to

structure special word

build stage

start manner

people history world

many, numourous well-known

experience whole

live 12 months

manuscript main

ancient comfort

for a long time durability

ought to different

project (v) decision

purpose contain

rule remember

projecter cover

modern last

to make smth more beautiful big

to be able to thing

have connect

3. Compose words into sentences according to the text:

1) Science, of, building, architecture, the planning, is, structure, or, and, art.

2) Architecture, old, itself, writings, as, on, are, writing, as, almost.

3) Which, architect, the, to guide, oldest, aim, book, Markus Pollio, is, the, is, work, the, of.

4) Ignored, it, terms, the, cannot, be, modern, in the, be, past, expressed, in, heritage, of, but, must.

5) Mankind, of, Roman, during, the, ancient, of, as, many, admires, well, centuries, Greece, Empire, architecture, or.

6) Have. in, till, convenience, been, the, century, beauty, the, present, strength, constructions, 21^st, and, best.

7) Three, design, the, constant, architectural, factors, design, the, also, interaction, also, in, necessity, to keep, includes, mind, of.

8) Building, the, must, materials, have, as, engineering, of, knowledge, designer, a, so, a, of, good.

4. Check the translation of one paragraph from the text and find some stylistically mistakes:

С самого начала строительства в человеческой истории множества архитектурных опытов, систем и теорий развивались для строительства зданий, которые населяли нации и поколения людей в любом виде их деятельности. Письменности по архитектуре почти такие же старые как письменность сама. Книги по теории архитектуры, по искусству строительства и по эстетическому виду зданий существуют в большом количестве. Самая старая книга, которая устанавливает четыре принципа, по которым здания следует проектировать и чья цель – руководить архитектором, является работа Марка Витрувия Поллио, написанная в I в. до н.э.

5. General understanding. Answer the questions to the text:

1.What is architecture?

2.What is the oldest book to set forth the principles of construction?

3.How should mankind deal with the heritage of the past?

4.What three basic factors in architecture were listed nearly two thousand years ago?

5.Why architecture is a difficult art?

6.What can we say about any truly great building?

7.What integration must an architect achieve?

6. Let's talk about architecture. Compose the dialog on following topics:

1.What famous Russian/English architectors do you know?

2.Among Seven Wonders of the World there were some famous buildings and constructions. Do you know them?

3.What famous architectural complexes in Russia do you know?

4.What do you think about your city/town architecture?

7. Write down the composition “My impressions of modern architecture” using information from lessons VIII-IX and your point of view.

8. Compose the plan to the text and speak briefly about architecture, its basic factors and tasks.

GRAMMAR

Numerals

Именем числительным называется часть речи, которая обозначает количество или порядок предметов при счете. Имена числительные делятся на количественные (Cardinal) и порядковые (Ordinal).

Количественные числительные отвечают на вопрос How many? (сколько?)

Порядковые числительные отвечают на вопрос Which? (который?)

Имена числительные бывают простыми (one, two, hundred, thousand, first, second), производными (seventeen, sixty, tenth), составными (seven hundred, six hundred and twenty five),

Дробные числительные

(Factional Numerals)

Простые дроби Десятичные дроби

(Common Fractions) (Decimal Fractions)

1/2 - a (one) half 0.1 – nought point one или point one

1/3 – a (one) third 0.01 – nought point nought one

2/3 – two thirds или point nought one

1/4 – a (one) quarter 2.35 – two point three five

a (one) fourth 32.305 – three two (или thirty two)

3/4 – three quarters point three nought five

three fourth

1 1/2 – one and a half

2 1/3 – two and a (one) third

2 1/4 – two and a quarter

5 3/4 – five and three quarter

Обозначение времени

В повседневной речи, если на часах 10 часов. На вопрос What’s the time? (Который час?), мы можем ответить It’s ten o’clock или Ten или It’s ten. Слово o’clock употребляется только при четком указании часа. It’s nine o’clock (It’s 11 o’clock). Когда час известен, мы можем сказать It’s five to (без пяти минут и т.д.) или It’s five past (пять минут …)

It’s five to three. - Без пяти минут три.

It’s five past three. - Пять минут четвертого.

It’s a quarter past ten. - 15 минут одиннадцатого.

It’s a quarter to ten. - Без 15 минут десять и т.д.

Ho: Three minutes to ten. - Без 3-х минут десять.

Twenty-two minutes to eleven. - Без двадцати двух минут одиннадцать.

a.m. (=ante meridiem (before midday))

p.m. (=post meridiem (after midday))

для обозначения времени до или после 12 частов

I’ll meet you at 5p.m.

Обозначение дат и чисел

35 B.C. (Before Christ) – до рождества Христова

A.D. 100 = A.D. one hundred – Anno Domini – по латински (после рождества Христова - in the year of our lord)

Аббревиатура A.D. необходима только лишь в случае обозначения ранних веков, чтобы избежать путаницы.

Pompey died in 48 B.C.

Tiberius died in A.D. 37

The 11^th … the 20^th century – всегда будет обозначать A.D.

Название годов произносятся 2 частями:

1066 ten sixty-six (10)66

1917 nineteen seventeen (19)17

1901 nineteen hundred and one или nineteen (oh) one

1900 nineteen hundred

Ho: 2000 the year of two thousand.

Если мы хотим сказать о конкретных годах какого-либо века, то:

50 годы 20 века - the fifties = the 50’s = the 50s

Дни и месяцы всегда пишутся с заглавной буквы. Числа выражаются порядковыми числительными, поэтому:

March the tenth, July the fourteenth.

Но, например, 10 марта – March the 10^th можно написать как:

March 10, 10 March, 10^th of March, March 10^th, 10^th March, March the 10^th.

Математические вычисления

= the equals sign - знак равенства

2+2 = 4 можно произнести как:

2 and 2 (или 2 plus2) equals 4,

либо

2 and 2 is four или 2 and 2 are four,

либо

2 and 2 make 4 или 2 and 2 makes 4.

+ (the plus sign) знак «плюс» произносится как plus или and

2 plus 2 makes 4 или 2 and 2 make(s) 4

- (the minus sign) знак «минус» можно произнести как minus, take away, from

9-3=6

9 minus 3 equals 6

9 take away 3 equals 6

3 from 9 equals (is) makes 6

x (the multiplication sign) знак умножения можно произнести как multiplied by, times

9x3=27

9 multiplied by 3 equals 27

9 times 3 is 27

Three nines (nine threes) are 27

: (the division sign) знак деления можно произнести как divided by, over

9:3 = 3

9 divided by (over) 3 equals 3

3 into nine is/goes 3

Exercise 1. Write down cardinals:

3; 13; 30; 4; 14; 40; 515; 50; 818; 80; 12; 100; 226; 705; 1,000; 4,568; 6,008; 75,137; 425,712; 1,306,527; 2,032,678.

Exercise 2. Write down ordinals:

1; 11; 21; 2; 12; 30; 13; 3; 4; 14; 40; 5; 15; 50; 6; 16; 60; 8; 18; 80; 9; 19; 90; 7; 17; 70; 100; 103; 208; 425; 705; 1,000; 1,015; 2,100,3,196.

Exercise 3. Write down fractionals:

1/2; 2 2/3; 1/3; 6 3/4; 2/3; 7 1/4; 1/4; 2 1/3; 1.48; 0.2; 0.001; 42.039; 11.507; 3%; 11%; 49%; 100%; 4/7%; 3/8%; 1/2%; 3/7%; 0.2%; 0.95.

Exercise 4. Translate into English:

9 часов утра, полдень, полночь, 11 часов вечера, 6 часов утра, 7 часов вечера, 8 часов 10 минут, 9 часов 15 минут, половина десятого, 10 часов 35 минут, 2 часа 45 минут, 3 часа 50 минут, 5 часов 57 минут.

Exercise 5. Write down “what’s the time”?

00.48 02.38 03.48 04.55 06.18 07.19 08.20 09.24 15.16 16.32 17.53 18.37 19.13 20.41 21.32 22.13 23.54

Exercise 6. Write down dates:

47 B.C.; 93 B.C.; 23 B.C.; 1066; 1142; 1334; 1500; 2000; 1901; 1700; 1666; 60-е годы 16 века; 11 апреля 1993 года; 1 февраля 1774 года; 23 августа 1800 года; 13 июня 1402года; 18 марта 1968 года; 31 мая 2000 года.

Exercise 7. Write down math calculations:

4+1=5 4x12=48

3+8=11 10x10=100

11+9=20 7x8=56

100+23=123 9x8=72

1248+397=1645 5x5=25

12-4=8 10:2=5

26-13=13 49:7=7

80-31=49 81:9=9

1000-99=1 36:6=6

47-15=32 45:9=5

Exercise 8. Translate into English:

1. Спектакль начинается в половину восьмого.

2. Заседание Исторического общества состоится в пятницу с 2-х до 3-х часов.

3. Этот магазин открыт до 9 часов вечера по пятницам.

4. 11 декабря в пятницу состоится экзамен по английскому языку.

5. Школьная библиотека работает с четырех до половины шестого.

6. Какое сегодня число? – 7 мая.

7. В октябре 31 день.

8. 23 июня попадает на воскресенье.

9. День перед 1 декабря – это понедельник.

10. Последняя суббота в ноябре – 26 ноября.

11. Сегодня четверг, 17 октября. Число через две недели, начиная с сегодняшнего дня, будет 31 октября.

12. Сегодня 8 декабря. На этой неделе в пятницу будет 13 декабря.

13. Какой твой новый телефонный номер? – ‘091-437255’.

14. Мне бы хотелось позвонить по номеру 035-68926.

15. Вот ее адрес: ‘(Mrs. B. Chapman) Миссис Б. Чепмен 4-й этаж 621 Скотт Холл роуд (Scott Hall Rd), Дейнхил (Danehill), тел: 284613.

16. В субботу утром есть очень хороший поезд до Лондона без четверти одиннадцать.

17. Первый поезд до Ливерпуля в среду отправляется из Лидза (Leeds) пятнадцать минут девятого.

18. Каждую пятницу утром до Эдинбурга отправляются 6 поездов.

19. 87% всех этих несчастных случаев вызваны невнимательностью (неаккуратностью) водителей.

20. Только 9% несчастный случаев, проверенных нами, произошли в случае технической неисправности автомобилей.

21. Возможности (для) путешествий были представлены как наиболее важная причина в выборе работы для 8 человек из 60.

22. 154 человека полагали, что зарплата была 3-ей наиболее значительной причиной в выборе работы.

Revise grammar (Numerals. Time) to be ready for the test.

LESSON X

What is meant by “bioclimatic architecture”

1. Read, translate the text, find words, that belong to your professional terms and explain their meanings:

Bioclimatic architecture is a way of designing buildings and manipulating the environment within buildings by working with natural forces around the building rather than against them. Thus it concerns itself with climate as a major contextual generator, and with benign environments using minimal energy as its target. Bioclimatic architecture aims to protect and enhance the environment and life. It is developing on many different levels from rethinking basic concepts about our need for shelter and the function of the “city” in our lives to developing recycled or sustainable building materials.

The impact of traditional building on the environment and natural resources is enormous. However, the ideal of designing and building structures that are environmentally friendly has become fairly widespread throughout the community of architects and builders in developed nations. In many areas there is the necessity of complying with new regulations and standards aimed at protecting the environment. In addition, there are an increasing number of incentives for putting up buildings with more efficient energy consumption and that reduces the negative impacts on natural resources by using recycled or sustainable materials. While these very around the world, there is awareness that our need for shelter must not jeopardize the environment.

There is growing interest in “green” building practices, which offer an opportunity to environmentally sound and resource-efficient buildings by using an integrated approach to design. “Green” buildings promote resource conservation through energy efficiency, renewable energy, and water conservation features. They take into consideration the environmental impact of the building and minimize waste. Other goals are to create a healthy and comfortable environment, reduce operation and maintenance costs, and address issues as historical preservation, access to public transportation and other community infrastructure systems. The entire life cycle of the building and its components is considered, as well as the economic and environmental impact and performance.

*As public awareness of environmental issues increases¹, the construction developers are also beginning to see that “green building” can be profitable and a selling point. Market surveys are showing that a surprising number of potential buyers are interested and will pay the higher prices for a home that is environmentally friendly. In the last few years there has been much talk concerning environmentally responsible architecture, that is, architecture respectful of the earth’s resources and its natural beauty. Unfortunately, many of the architects and designers* who profess interest in the concept of sustainable architecture² do not practice it in their own work for whatever reason, be it their client’s lack of interest or their own lack of conviction. In fact, most architects ignore the issue altogether, preferring to regard architecture as fashion. This is a terribly irresponsible view, because in terms of energy use and visual pollution, *buildings have had an increasingly severe and damaging impact on the environment,³ this makes the issue of sustainable architecture not only an important consideration but also a necessary one. As for a building philosophy for national parks, which were created to conserve nature for future generations, it seems that sustainable architecture, or “integrated bioclimatic architecture”, is the only logical and responsible approach.

What is integrated bioclimatic architecture? It is the architecture that arises out of the landscape, with the site determining the orientation and construction of a building, not just aesthetically, but also mechanically, determining its heating, cooling, and lighting too. Thus, it is an architecture that respects nature and its resources and provides its occupants with the most comfortable and pleasing environment possible. However, this architectural approach need not be a restrictive one for imaginative practitioners. As integrated bioclimatic architecture encompasses examples of vernacular architecture, like the typical “white stucco Mediterranean fishing village”, as well as mimetic architecture, which draws on the materials, textures, even the plants of the surrounding landscape for its inspiration. Indeed, good integrated bioclimatic architecture should exist in harmony with the site.

2. Explain the meaning of following words:

bio-diplomacy, bio-organization, bio-education, bio-history, bio-archaeology, bio-architecture, sustainable architecture.

3. Find in the text all synonyms to the phase “green building”. Give the full explanation to this term

4. Find Russian equivalents:

1. environmentally friendly _________________________________________

2. bioclimatic architecture __________________________________________

3. more efficient energy consumption _________________________________

4. to promote resource conservation __________________________________

5. an irresponsible view ____________________________________________

6. to exist in harmony with the site or nature ___________________________

7. public awareness of environmental issues ___________________________

8. resource-efficient buildings _______________________________________

9. the environmental impact of the building ____________________________

5. Translate from Russian into English. Compose sentences with these word combinations on the topic:

арка, поддерживаемая колоннами __________________________________

создание здоровой окружающей среды _____________________________

плодоносная почва ______________________________________________

разрушающее воздействие ________________________________________

пересмотр основных взглядов (понятий) ____________________________

строительство, запланированное в этом районе ______________________

повторное использование материалов ______________________________

возобновляемые ресурсы _________________________________________

развитые страны ________________________________________________

отсутствие убежденности _________________________________________

6. Correct these statements if they are wrong, then prove them:

1. Bioclimatic architecture is a way of designing buildings and manipulating the environment within buildings by working against natural forces around the building. 2. Bioclimatic architecture aims to prevent and enlarge the environment and life. 3. The ideal of designing and building structures that are environmentally friendly has become strong ban throughout the community of architects and builders all over the world. 4. Using recycled or sustainable materials increases the negative impact on natural resources. 5. “Green” building practice offers an opportunity to create environmentally sound and resource-efficient buildings by using an integrated approach to design. 6. Market surveys are showing that potential buyers are interested in a home that has an increasingly severe and damaging impact on the environment. 7. Many architects practice sustainable architecture in their own work for whatever reason. 8. As for building philosophy for national parks, it seems that sustainable architecture is the only life cycle of the building.

7. General understanding. Answer the questions to the text. Using these questions as a plan speak on topic:

1. What is bioclimatic architecture?

2. The impact of traditional building on the environment and natural resources is not enormous, is it?

3. Why is there growing interest in “Green” building practices?

4. What makes the construction developers see that “green” building can profitable?

5. Do most architects regard architecture as fashion?

6. What is integrated bioclimatic architecture?

7. Explain the words “vernacular architecture”.

8. Good integrated bioclimatic architecture should exist in harmony with the site, shouldn’t it?

GRAMMAR

Perfects

1.The Present Perfect употребляется для выражения действия, совершившегося к настоящему моменту, результат которого имеется налицо в настоящем времени. Действие могло совершиться как непосредственно перед моментом речи, так и более отдаленное время в прошлом. При употреблении Present Perfect говорящий обращает внимание собеседника на результат, вытекающий из совершенного действия, а не на время его совершения. Наличие результата связывает совершившееся действие, выраженное Present Perfect, с настоящим.

I have broken my pencil Я сломал свой карандаш.

(Говорящий имеет в виду конкретный результат действия have broken, а именно, что карандаш сломан. Он мог бы это также выразить предложением: My pencil is broken. Мой карандаш сломан.)

2. В зависимости от значения глагола результат действия, выраженного в Present Perfect, может и не быть конкретным, как в приведенных примерах, а выражаться иным образом:

I have not read that book Я не читала этой книги.

(Говорящий хочет сообщить, что книга им не прочитана, т.е. что он не знает ее содержания. Он мог бы это выразить также предложением: I don’t know the contents of that book. Я не знаю содержания этой книги.)

3. Present Perfect употребляется для выражения как однократного действия, так и действия, повторявшегося несколько раз:

I have read that book twice. Я прочитал эту книгу дважды.

I have seen this film three times. Я видел этот фильм три раза.

Примечание. И Present Perfect и Past Simple соответствуют в русском языке прошедшему времени. Однако Past Simple и Present Perfect коренным образом отличаются друг от друга. Past Simple выражает действие, совершившееся в истекшем отрезке времени, констатирует факт совершения действия в прошлом. Поэтому Past Simple употребляется в повествовании. Present Perfect выражает действие, хотя и совершившееся в прошлом, но связанное с настоящим благодаря наличию его результата в настоящем времени. Поэтому Present Perfect употребляется не в повествовании, а в разговоре или сообщении, касающемся положения вещей в настоящее время.

Сводка случаев употребления Present Perfect

Exercise 1. Put in the correct verb for:

I’ve done (I/do) all the housework. The flat is really clean now.

A young couple bought (buy) the house next door. But they didn’t live there long.

1. Our visitors ………………………… (arrive). They’re sitting in the garden.

2. There’s still a problem with the television. Someone …………………………. (repair) it, but then it broke down again.

3. …………………………… (I/lose) my bank card. I can’t find it anywhere.

4. The match …………………………… (start). United are playing well.

5. My sister ……… (run) away from home. But she came back two days later.

6. Daniel …... (earn) some money last week. But I’m afraid he’s already spent it all.

7. ……………… (we/plant) an apple tree in the garden. Unfortunately it died.

8. Prices …………………… (go) up. Everything is more expensive this year.

9. Someone ……………………… (run) on the hi-fi. What’s that song called?

10. …………….. (I/phone) the office at eleven to speak to the manager, but he isn’t there today.

11. ………………………… (I/make) a cake. Would you like a piece?

12. The runner Amos Temila ……………….(break) the world record for the 1500 metres in Frankfurt. Then two days later in Helsinki, Lee Williams ran it in an even faster time.

Exercise 2. Things that have happened today are on the radio and TV news. Give the news using the present perfect and past simple:

the Prime Minister/visit Luton University/speak to students there/earlier today

The Prime Minister has visited Luton University. He spoke to students there earlier today.

1. the train drives / go on strike / stop work / at twelve o’clock

2. the Queen / arrive in Toronto / fly there / in an RAF aircraft

3. two men / escape from Parkhurst Prison / get away / during the night

4. the actor Howard Bates / die in a car accident / his car / crash into a wall

5. Linda Jones / win the women’s marathon / run it / in 2 hours 27 minutes.

Exercise 3. Complete this letter to a newspaper. Put in the present perfect or past simple:

A few days ago learned (learn) that someone plans to knock down the White Horse Inn. This pub has been (be) the centre of village life for centuries. It …………………………….. (stand) at our crossroads for 500 years. It ……………………………. (be) famous in the old days, and Shakespeare once ……………………………. (stay) there, they say. I ……………………………… (live) in Brickfield all my life. The villagers ………………………………… (know) about the plans for less than a week and already there’s a ‘Save our Pub’ campaign. Last week we …………………………………. (be) happy, but this week we’re angry. We will stop them, you’ll see.

Exercise 4. Put in this, last, today or yesterday:

Last month prices went up, but this month they have fallen a little.

1. It’s been dry so far ……………… week, but ………… week was very wet.

2. I went shopping earlier …………. and spent all the money I earned ……….

3. We didn’t have many visitors …….. year. We’ve had a lot more …… year.

4. I don’t feel so tired now. We got up quite late ……… morning. I left really tired …….. when we got up so early.

Exercise 5. Decide which word is correct:

I’d like to borrow this book. Has Anna read it yet?

a) done b) for c) just d) yet

1. Ben writes very quickly. He’s ……………… finished his essay.

a) already b) been c) for d) yet

2. What are you going to do? ~ I don’t know. I haven’t decided…………..

a) just b) long c) since d) yet

3. I’ve ……………………………. to London. I went there in June.

a) been b) gone c) just d) yet

4. Have you ………………………….. done any skiing?

a) ever b) for c) just d) long

5. My boyfriend hasn’t rung ………………………………. week.

a) for b) last c) since d) this

6. I haven’t seen that coat before. How ………………………. have you had it?

a) already b) for c) long d) since

7. The girls have ……… to the cinema. They won’t be back until ten o’clock.

a) already b) been c) gone d) just

8. I haven’t seen my parents ………………………………. last Christmas.

a) already b) before c) for d) since

9. This is the first …………………………… I’ve ever lived away from home.

a) already b) since c) that d) time

10. This programme must be new. I’ve ……………………… seen it before.

a) ever b) never c) since d) yet

Exercise 6. Some of these sentences are correct, and some have a word which should not be there. If the sentence is correct, put a tick (٧) If it is incorrect, cross the unnecessary have of has out of the sentence and write it in the space:

Susan has lost her keys. She can’t find them anywhere. ٧

Christopher has hurt his hand, but it’s OK now. has

1. The directors have arrived half an hour ago, but they didn’t ……..…………

stay long.

2. It’s raining, and Peter has left his umbrella behind, look. ………………..

3. It’s a long time since your friends last visited us. ………………..

4. None of you have called me for weeks. Aren’t we friends ...……………...

any more?

5. We can play tennis now. The others have finished. ………………..

6. The company has bought some land, but then it sold it. ………………..

7. The computer isn’t on now. Someone has turned it off. ………………..

8. Tessa has posted the parcel. It’s on its way to you. ………………..

9. Several bombs have gone off in the city centre. It has happened an hour ago. ………………..

10. Simon has left. He and Oliver have left after lunch. ………………..

Past Perfect

The Past Perfect Tense образуется с помощью вспомогательного глагола to have в форме прошедшего времени (had) и формы причастия прошедшего времени (Past Participle) смыслового глагола: I had worked, he had done.

В вопросительной форме вспомогательный глагол ставится перед подлежащим: Had you worked? Had he done?

Отрицательная форма образуется при помощи частицы not, которая ставится после вспомогательного глагола: I had not worked.

Past Perfect употребляется только в повествовании, в рассказах, повестях и т.д. (only in the narrative).

Форма Past Perfect употребляется:

1. когда нужно показать, что данное действие или событие кончилось к какому-то моменту в прошлом.

Определенный момент в прошлом может быть выражен обстоятельством времени с предлогом by (к):

by that time к тому времени

by 10 o’clock к десяти часам

by the end of the week к концу недели

by the beginning of last year к началу прошлого года

by 1998 к 1998году

They had completed their work by Они закончили свою работу к 12

12 o’clock. часам.

By the end of the year I had learned К концу года я выучила много

many English words and expressions. английских слов и выражений.

This article had been translated into Эта статья была переведена на

English by 2 o’clock. английский язык к 2 часам.

2. Когда нужно показать, что данное действие или событие предшествовало какому-то другому действию или событию в прошлом. Более позднее действие выражено глаголом в Past Simple:

When we came to the theatre, all Когда мы пришли в театр, все

the tickets had been sold out. билеты были уже проданы.

When I looked out of the window, I Когда я выглянул в окно, я

saw that the rain had not stopped. увидел, что дождь еще не

прекратился.

Exercise 1. Read about each situation and then tick the right answer:

Two men delivered the sofa. I had already paid for it.

Which came first, a) the delivery, or b) ٧ the payment?

1. The waiter brought our drinks. We’d already had our soup.

Which came first, a) the drinks, or b) the soup?

2. I’d seen the film, so I read the book.

Did I first a) see the film, or b) read the book?

3. The programme had ended, so I rewound the cassette.

Did I rewind the cassette a) after, or b) before the programme ended?

4. I had an invitation to the party, but I’d arranged a trip to London.

Which came first, a) the invitation, or b) the arrangements for the trip?

Exercise 2. Add a sentence with the past perfect using the notes:

Claire looked very suntanned when I saw her last week.

She’d just been on holiday. (just/be on holiday)

1. We rushed to the station, but we were too late.

………………………………………………….. (the train / just / go)

2. I didn’t have an umbrella, but that didn’t matter.

………………………………………………….. (the rain / stop)

3. When I got to the concert hall, they wouldn’t let me in.

………………………………………………….. (forget / my ticket)

4. Someone got the number of the car the raiders used.

………………………………………………….. (steal / it / a week before)

5. I was really pleased to see Rachel again yesterday.

………………………………………………….. (not see / her/ for ages)

6. Luckily the flat didn’t look too bad when my parents called in.

………………………………………………….. (just / clean / it)

7. The boss invited me to lunch yesterday, but I had to refuse the invitation.

…………………………………………….. (already / eat / my sandwiches)

Exercise 3. Put the verbs in the present perfect (have done) or past perfect (had done):

It isn’t raining now. It’s stopped (stop) at last.

We had no car at that time. We’d sold (sell) our old one.

1. The park looked awful. People ………………….. (leave) litter everywhere.

2. You can have that newspaper. I ………………………….. (finish) with it.

3. There’s no more cheese. We ………………………… (eat) it all, I’m afraid.

4. There was no sign of a taxi, although I……. (order) one half an hour before.

5. This bill isn’t right. They ……………… … (make) a mistake.

6. I spoke to Melanie at lunch-time. Someone ……. (tell) her the news earlier.

7. I was really tired last night. I …………… …. (have) a hard day.

8. Don’t you want to see this programme? It ………………………….. (start).

9. It’ll soon get warm in here. I …………………… … (turn) the heating on.

10. At last the committee were ready to announce their decision.

They ……………………………… (make) up their minds.

Exercise 4. Read the situations and write sentences from the words in brackets:

1. You went to Jill’s house but she wasn’t there. (she / go / out) …She had gone out…

2. You went back to your home town after many years. It wasn’t the same as before.

(it / change / a lot) …………………………………………..

3. I invited Rachel to the party but she couldn’t come.

(she / arrange / to do something else) ……………………………………..

4. You went to the cinema last night. You arrived at the cinema late.

(the film / already / begin) …………………………………..

5. I was very pleased to see Tim again after such a long time.

(I / not / see / him for five years) ………………………………….

6. I offered Sue something to eat but she wasn’t hungry.

(she / just / have / breakfast) ……………………………….

Exercise 5. Read the situation and write sentences ending with before. Use the verb given in brackets:

1. The man sitting next to me on the plane was very nervous. It was his first flight.

(fly) …He had never flown before, OR He hadn’t flown before. …

2. A woman walked into the room. She was a complete stranger to me.

(see) I …………………………………. before.

3. Simon played tennis yesterday. He wasn’t very good at it because it was his first game.

(play) He …………………………………..

4. Last year we went to Denmark. It was our first time there

(be) We ……………………

Exercise 6. Put the verb into the correct form, past perfect (I had done etc.) or past simple (I did etc.):

1. ‘Was Tom at the party when you arrived?’ ‘No, he …had gone… (go) home.

2. I felt very tired when I got home. so I ……………….. (go) straight to bed.

3. The house was very quiet when I got home. Every body …….. (go) to bed.

4. Sorry I’m late. The car ……………………. (break) down on my way here.

5. We were driving along the road when we ………………. (see) a car which. ………… (break) down, so we ……………………… (stop) to see if we could help.

Future Perfect

The Future Perfect образуется при помощи вспомогательного глагола to have в будущем времени (shall have, will have) и формы причастия прошедшего времени (Past Participle) смыслового глагола: I shall have worked, he will have done.

В вопросительной форме первый вспомогательный глагол ставится перед подлежащим: Shall I have worked? Will he have worked?

В отрицательной форме частица not ставится после первого вспомогательного глагола: I’ll not have worked.

The Future Perfect употребляется сравнительно редко, эта форма употребляется в тех случаях, когда нужно показать, что речь идет о будущем действии, которое должно заканчиваться до наступления другого будущего действия или до определенного момента в будущем. Момент, до которого совершается действие, может быть указан:

1. Обозначением времени, таким как by 5 o’clock - к пяти часам, by Saturday - к субботе, by the end of the year - к концу года, by that time - к тому времени и т.п.

We’ll have translated the article Мы (уже) переведем статью к субботе.

by Saturday.

Students will have finished their Студенты закончат учебу к 20

study by 20 December. декабря.

2. Другим будущим действием, выраженным глаголом в Present Simple, в придаточных предложениях времени и условия:

The train will have left by the time Поезд уже уйдет к тому времени, как

we get to the station. мы приедем на вокзал.

I’ll have finished this work if you Я уже закончу эту работу, если ты

come at 7 o’clock. придешь в 7 часов.

The Future Perfect не употребляется в придаточных предложениях времени и условия. В этих случаях вместо Future Perfect употребляется Present Simple или Present Perfect:

We’ll send them the documents Мы пошлем им документы, после

after we have received the goods. того как получим товары.

Exercise 1. Paul wants to be an artist. He’s reading about a famous artist called Winston Plummer:

Winston Plummer was a great artist, who had a wonderful career. He won lots of prizes before he was twenty. By the age of twenty-five he had had his own exhibition. He was the subject of a TV documentary by the time he was thirty. By the age of thirty-five he had become world-famous. He made millions of pounds from his pictures before he was forty.

Paul is daydreaming about his own future career. What does he think?

I hope I’ll have won lots of prizes before I’m twenty.

1. Perhaps ……………………… my own exhibition by the age of twenty-five.

2. I wonder if …………………………………………… by the time I’m thirty.

3. Maybe …………………………………..…………. by the age of thirty-five.

4. I hope ………………………………………...…………. by the age of forty.

Exercise 2. How good is your maths? Can you work out the answers?

It’s quarter to six. Melanie is putting something in the oven.

It needs to be in the oven for an hour and half. When will it have cooked?

It will have cooked at quarter past seven.

1. It’s seven o’clock in the evening, and Andrew is starting to write an essay. He writes one page every fifteen minutes. He plans to finish the essay at midnight. How many pages will he have written? He will have written ………………………… pages.

2. It’s Monday morning, and Sarah is travelling to work. It’s twenty miles from her home to the office. How far will she have traveled to and from work by the time she gets home on Friday?

3. Matthew is doing press-ups-one every two seconds. How many will he have done after five minutes?

Exercise 3. Put the verb into the correct from, will be (do)ing:

1. Phone me after 8 o’clock. …………………….. (we/finish) dinner by then.

2. B has to go to a meeting which begins at 10 o’clock. It will last about an hour.

A: Will you be free at 11.30?

B: Yes, (the meeting/finish) by that time.

3. Tom is on holiday and he is spending his money very quickly. If he continues like this, ………… (he/spend) all his money before the end of his holiday.

4. Jane is from New Zealand. She is traveling around Europe at the moment. So far she has traveled about 1,000 miles. By the end of the trip, ……………………………… (she/travel) more than 3,000 moles.

Exercise 4. Translate the sentences into Russian:

1. By the time you get home, you will forget everything I have told you.

2. The train will already have left by the time we come to the station.

3. By this time next week I’ll have finished my work.

4. I’ll have left home by 3 o’clock tomorrow.

5. I’m not sure if he will have the article by the 1^st of October.

Revise grammar (Perfect) to be ready for the test.

Appendix

Albert Einstein

Albert Einstein is one of greatest scientists of our age, yet in his childhood he was slow, shy and backward. He found it extremely difficult to learn even to talk.

Later he became one of the most famous men in the world. The Theory of Relativity brought him fame on five continents. Yet, he led a very simple sort of life, went around in old clothes, and seldom wore a hat. He said that he did not care for fame or riches. The captain of a transatlantic ship once offered Einstein the most expensive rooms on the ship; Einstein refused and said he would rather travel on desk then accept any special favours. Einstein impressed everybody as being a very happy man. He said he was happy because he didn’t want anything from anybody. He didn’t want money or titles or praise. He made his own happiness cut of such simple things as his work, his violin and his boat. His violin brought him more joy than anything else in life. He said he often thought in music.

The Kremlin

The heart of Astrakhan is the Kremlin, a wonderful architectural ensemble. It is a famous monument of Russian architecture and military engineering art of the end of the 16^th centure. The Astrakhan Kremlin covers the territory of 11 hectares, the perimeter of it is 1544 metres, its walls are between 7 and 11 metres high. The Kremlin walls were used as peculiar and the most absolute system for defence. There were 3 rows of cannon loop-holes. Through these loop-holes the defenders could deliver fire.

Not only Uspenski and Troitski cathedrals but also bishop’s chambers, Kirillovskaya chapel were reserved up to our days.

Uspenski cathedral was built in 1710. Serf-peasant Dorofei Myakishev guided the work. Uspenski cathedral is 75m high. It has 5 gold domes. In its outward mounting we can see the features of early baroque. From the west the place of execution, the so-called “Lobnoye Mesto” joined the cathedral. The Tsar decrees and sentences were announced here.

Troitski cathedral consists of 3 churches: Troitskaya, Sretenskaya, Vedenskaya and two refectory chambers. One of the Kremlin Towers was called “pytochnaya”, people were put to torture there. The Kremlin with golden domes and towers attracts everybody’s attention and makes a strong impression on tourists and guests of the town because the Kremlin is an architecture monument of the 16^th century.

UK POLITICAL SISTEM

The United Kingdom of Great Britain is a parliamentary democracy with a constitutional monarch, Queen as head of State. The organs of government are: Parliament, the executive and the judiciary.

The legislature, Parliament, is the supreme authority. It comprises two chambers- the House of Lords and the House of Commons- together with the Queen in her constitutional role.

The executive consists of the central Government- that is the Prime Minister and the cabinet and other ministers, who are responsible for initiating and directing the national policy, government departments, local authorities and public corporations.

The judiciary determines common law and interprets status and is independent of both the legislature and the executive.

The Government derives its authority from the elected House of Commons. A general election, for all seats in the House of Commons, must be held at least every five years. The Government is normally formed by the political party which is supported by the majority in the House of Commons. The party’s leader is the Prime Minister appointed by the Queen. He chooses a team of ministers, of whom 20 or so are in the Cabinet. The second largest party becomes Her Majesty’s Loyal Opposition with its own leader and “Shadow Cabinet”. The House of Commons comprises members from the constituencies in England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland who represent people whose history and traditions differ.

The House of Lords is a hereditary chamber.

In Great Britain there is no written constitution, only customs, traditions and precedents.

Не нашли, что искали? Воспользуйтесь поиском по сайту: