Chemical and physical properties of petroleum and related substances

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Origin of Oil and Gas

Nowadays there are two main theories explaining the origin of petroleum or oil and natural

gas - organic and inorganic ones. However, it has not been possible to determine the exact

origin because it has not been possible to identify the exact place or materials from which any

particular oil accumulation originated. The precise details regarding the problems of origin, migration and accumulation of petroleum have yet to be fully answered. Recent advances in analytical chemistry and geochemistry have advanced the knowledge and understanding, but issues remain to be resolved. The oil pool (field) is an end product to a 5-stage sequence of events: raw materials,accumulation, transformation, migration and geologic time. But the complication is that petroleums are complex mixtures of many hydrocarbons occurring in series with no two petroleums exactly alike in composition. This is probably due to variations in primary source materials and subsequent processes during formation such as pressure and temperature changes. Although the components of petroleum unite to form complex mixtures, the typical elemental chemical analysis indicates 10-15% hydrogen and 82-87% carbon weight.

heavy crude

• light crude

• methane gas

• propane gas

• butane gas

cyclo-hexane gas.

The organic theory presumes that hydrogen and carbon that make up petroleum came from plants

and animals living on land and in sea. This explanation is most generally accepted by scientists.

Heat and pressure transformed the organic materials into solid, liquid or gaseous hydrocarbons

known as fossil fuels- coal, crude oil or natural gas. Oil is typically derived from marine plants and

animals. Natural gas can be formed from almost any marine or terrestrial organic materials, under a wide variety of temperatures and pressures.

The inorganic theory holds that hydrocarbons were trapped inside the Earth1 during the planet’s

formation and are slowly moving upwards. According to this theory, the hydrogen and carbon were brought together under great pressure and temperature deep in the Earth to form oil and gas, which then found its way through porous rocks to collect in natural traps in the underground formations of the earth.

Due to the force of gravity and the pressure created by the overlaying rock layers, oil and natural

gas seldom stay in the source rock in which they are formed. Instead, they move through the

underground layers of sedimentary rocks until they either escape at the surface or are trapped by

a barrier of less permeable rock. Most of the world’s petroleum had been found trapped in porous

rocks under relatively impermeable formations. These reservoirs are often long distances away from the original source. A seep occurs when hydrocarbons migrate to the Earth’s surface. Over time, huge amount of these hydrocarbons have escaped into atmosphere. Flowing water can also wash away hydrocarbons2. Sometimes only lighter, more volatile compounds are removed, leaving behind reservoirs of heavier types of crude oil.

Exploring of Oil and Gas

Earth scientists in the petroleum industry – including geologists, geophysicists, geochemists and paleontologists - study what has happened to rocks that may be buried thousands of meters below surface, how those rocks were formed and affected by events stretching back millions of years, and how to identify traps where oil and gas accumulated within rock formations.

An explorer may have a well-developed theory or intuition why an area should contain oil and gas.

A first-hand look at outcrop geology and surface features sometimes helps to confirm the basic

requirements - that there may be sedimentary rocks, potential reservoirs and hydrocarbon-bearing source rocks in a sedimentary basin.

Within a basin, the explorer’s first step is to examine all the information already known about

the area. This might include academic papers, surface geology observations, any wells drilled,

data from relevant agencies or departments and previous exploration results from nearby or

similar areas. Geophysicists can identify the structure, configuration, thickness and depth of new sedimentary basins by measuring slight variations in the Earth’s gravitational and magnetic fields and by measuring the time taken for seismic energy waves to pass through and be reflected from sedimentary layers.

In a typical trap, gas accumulates on the top of the reservoir as a “gas cap” over the oil, which in

turn overlies the water-saturated zone in the reservoir. This occurs because natural gas is lighter than oil which is lighter than water. However, all three fluids are often intermingled in parts of the reservoir. Porosity is the ability of rock to hold oil and gas like water in a sponge. A trap requires three elements:

• A porous reservoir rock to accumulate the oil and gas- typically sandstones, limestones and

dolomites

• An overlaying impermeable rock to prevent oil and gas from escaping

• A source for the oil and gas, typically black waxy shales

There are 6 common oil and gas traps: 1) thrust fault ; 2) normal fault ; 3) stratigraphic pinch-out; 4)reef; 5) anticlines; 6) salt dome.

If it is impossible to obtain the geophysical data from regulatory bodies, the seismic survey is

required. In a seismic survey it is necessary to lay out a line or several lines of sensitive receivers, called geophones or jugs, on the ground. Then explosions or mechanical vibrations are created on the surface. The geophones record the energy reflected back as seismic waves from rock layers at various depths. Geophysicists and geologists examine the seismic data for the presence of suitable traps and for similarities with other petroleum-producing areas. If the results seem promising, they use the seismic data to pinpoint where to drill a well.

The well

The well is a hole drilled in the earth for the purpose of finding or producing crude oil or natural gas; or providing services related to the production of crude oil or natural gas. Also, an oil well can be described as a pipeline reaching from the top of the ground to the oil producing

formation. Through this pipe, oil and gas are brought to the surface. Wells are normally drilled with a drilling rig in stages, starting with a surface hole drilled to reach a depth anywhere from 60 to 400 meters.

The drillers then pull out the drill string and insert steel pipe, called surface casing, which is cemented in place to keep the wall from caving in. The casing – tubular steel pipe connected by threads and couplings-lines the total length of the well bore1 to ensure safe control of production and to prevent water entering the wellbore and to keep the rock formations from “sloughing” into the wellbore. The second step is the installation of the production tubing. Tubing is a steel pipe smaller in diameter than the production casing. It is lowered into the casing and held in place by packers which also isolate the production layers of rock.

Tubing

The tubing hangs from a surface installation called the wellhead. The wellhead includes valves,

chokes and pressure gages and makes it possible to regulate production from the well. The third

step is to perforate the well. The casing prevents the hole from collapsing, but it also prevents the oil or gas from entering the wellbore. Therefore, holes are made through the casing and into the formation. This is usually accomplished with an explosive device that is lowered into the well on an electrical wireline to the required depth. This device, a collection of explosive charges, is called a perforating gun2.

Producing oil and gas from the well. Gas generally flows to the wellbore under its own pressure.

As a result, most gas wells are equipped only with chokes and valves to control the flow through

the wellhead into a pipeline. When the wellhead pressure is less than the pipeline pressure, a

compressor is installed to boost the low-pressure gas into the pipeline.

The production of crude oil is more complicated. Crude oil has larger molecules and moves through rocks less easily. The percentage of the oil in the reservoir that can be produced naturally, called the recovery factor, is determined by a large number of elements. These include the density of the oil, the viscosity, the porosity and permeability of the rock, the pressure in the oil reservoir and the pressure of other fluids such as gas and water in the reservoir.

Pumping. While some oil wells contain enough pressure to push oil to the surface, most oil wells

drilled today require pumping. This is also known as artificial lift. If a well requires it, a pump is lowered down the tubing to the bottom of the well on a string of steel rods, referred to as the rod string.The rod string conveys power to the pump either by rotating or moving up and down, depending on the type of pump employed. Submersible pumps3are used on some wells.

Well stimulation. In many oil and gas wells, one additional step is required- stimulating the formation by physical or chemical means so that the hydrocarbons can move more easily to the wellbore through the pores or fractures in the reservoir. This is usually done before installing a pump or when the pump is removed for maintenance.

One form of stimulation- acidizing is the injection of acids under pressure into the rock formation

through the production tubing and perforations. This creates channels beyond the perforations for oil and gas to flow back to the well. Fracturing or fracing is another common method of stimulation.

A fluid such as water or an oil product is pumped down the hole under sufficient pressure to create cracks (fractures) in the formation.

Proppant- a hard substance such as sand, ceramics or resin-coated material - in injected with the fluid. As the fluid disperses, the material remains to prop open the fracture.

Well testing

In producing gas and oil, efficient performance of the producing wells has more and more

importance. A variety of tests must be made to determine the performance of an oil or gas well.

This procedure is called testing. There are a large number of types of well tests and each is

needed to obtain certain information about the well.

Various personnel make the many well tests, some of which are routine and some of which are

complicated. Depending upon the type of test to be performed, the standard lease producing

equipment may be all that is necessary for the test. In other tests, specially designed apparatus may be necessary. In any event, it is very important that the test be done accurately since well test data presents the true history of a well and the reservoir in which it is completed.

Potential test: The most frequently conducted well test is the potential test, which is a measurement of the largest amount of oil and gas, produced by a well in a 24-hour period under certain fixed conditions. The produced oil is measured in an automatically controlled production and test unit.

It also can be measured by wireline measurement in the lease tank. Produced gas is measured at the same time with equipment such as an orifice meter or an orifice well tester. The major items of equipment needed for a test of this type are usually available as standard equipment at the lease tank farm.

The potential test is normally made on each newly completed well and often during its production life. The information obtained from this test is required by the state regulatory group, which assigns a producing allowable, which must be followed by the operator of the well. It is necessary to make the tests from time to time and producing allowables are adjusted according to the results of the tests. Very often these tests are performed by the producer to help in establishing proper production practices.

Bottom-hole pressure test: This test is a measure of the reservoir pressure of the well at a specific depth or at midpoint of the producing interval. The purpose of this test is to measure the pressure in the zone in which the well is completed. In making of this test, a specially designed pressure gage is lowered into the well by means of a wire line. The pressure at the selected depth is recorded by the gage. After that gas is pulled to the surface and is taken from the well. Regular bottom-hole tests will provide valuable information about the decline or depletion of the zone in which the well has beenproducing.

Productivity tests. Productivity tests are made on both oil and gas wells, and include both the

potential test and the bottom-hole pressure test. The purpose is to determine the effects of different flow rates on the pressure within the producing zone. In this way, it is possible to establish some certain physical characteristics of the reservoir and to calculate maximum potential rate of flow. This test mitigates risk of damaging the well, which might occur if the well were produced at its maximum possible flow rate.

Special tests: Two types of special tests are fluid level determination and bottom hole determination.

The first is required for wells, which will not flow and must be made to produce by pumping or artificial lift. The bottom-hole determination is normally made along with the bottom-hole pressure test and is made to determine the temperature of the well at the bottom of the hole.

It is necessary to lower a specially designed recording manometer into the well on a wire line.

The temperature tests are used by the engineer in solving problems about the nature of oil or gas that the well produces. It is also useful in locating leaks in the pipe above the producing zone. Other special tests are performed with flow rate indicators and radio active tracers.

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COLOR

The color of petroleum varies considerably. Some oils may be almost colorless, others are light yellow, red, green and black, or any intermediate shade. In these layers colors are less intense and in black oil the thin layers are brown in color. The higher gravity crude oils are usually amber or green in color. The lower gravity crude is dark brown color.

When crude oils are observed by reflected light the color appears to be different than that observed by transmitted light . Brown oil often appears to be green by reflected light. Ultra-violet light causes crude oils to fluoresce with characteristic colors even if they are of the same color by transmitted and reflected light. This phenomenon is now widely used to test cores, samples and drilling mud for oil shows.

The odor of a crude oil is determined by its composition. The crude oil has a disagreeable odor because of hydrogen sulphide and other compounds.

Chemical and physical properties of petroleum and related substances

Petroleum is a complex mixture of gaseous, liquid and solid hydrocarbons. In addition to the hundreds of different hydrocarbons composing petroleum, there are also other compounds which contain oxygen, nitrogen and sulphur. Relatively small amounts of water and inorganic matter are frequently present. The physical and chemical properties of different samples of petroleum are not uniform because of the varying chemical composition and the presence of impurities. Petroleum and related substances occur in the physical state as a liquid (as in crude oil), as a gas (as in natural gas), and the solid or semisolid state (as in ozocerite and asphalt).

The physical and chemical properties of petroleum in the natural reservoir are different from those observed at the surface because of change in temperature and pressure and loss of volatile constituents.

Uses of mud

Mud is one of the most important tools used in rotary drilling. Mud leaves the standpipe at the gooseneck to enter the rotary hose. The hose in necessary for making a flexible connection so the drill pipe may move up and down, within a range of hose through the swivel to the drilling string. Swivel is constructed so that the upping portion, attached to the hose, remains stationary while the lowers part fastened to the Kelly, rotate freely. This arrangement permits the entire drilling string to the rotate while fluid is coursing through it to the bit. Mud serves to remove cutting from the hole and cool and lubrication the bit. It is also very important as a wall builder for the hole. By employing a plastic mud, a temporary casing is formed in the hole as drilling progresses. This overcomes the difficulty experienced in cable tool frilling with water sands and other soft formations. Mud also is used to control & overcomes excessive pressures encountered in the bore-hole. High gas pressures are contained within the formation of their origin. The technique of mixing and handling the chemicals and other components of mud are so important and, at times doing complicated that skilled mud engineers supplement the driller’s knowledge & practice.

Distance of migration

The distance of migration of petroleum is one of the most controversial subjects in petroleum geology. Some investigators contend that the movement has been restricted to relatively short distances, such as hundreds of feet or at most a few miles, whereas others believe it has migrated tens or even hundreds. Although most of the evidence favors short distance migration, it must be admitted that no one has yet presented evidence to prove that petroleum has migrated any definite distance to its present position. There is evidence that petroleum has migrated both short & long distances. Each producing area presents an individual problem on the relative distance of migration of oil & gas. The important factors which determine the distance of migration of oil & gas are the areal distribution, permeability, and continuity of reservoir beds. Oil, water and gas should move through a highly permeable & uniform carrier bed for long distances under ideal conditions of wide areal distribution and with differential hydrostatic pressure.

Derrick

A derrick is necessary for lifting tools and pipe in and out of the hole. As maximum length of single joint of pipe will exceed 40 feet slightly, the derrick not have to be as high as average rotary derrick. Three hoisting reels distinguish cable tool machine. The bull wheel handles the drilling tools going in and out of hole. The calf wheel is used for hoisting and running of casing. The sand reel car the small line on which the bailer and, later, the swab is run. An up and down mote is imparted to the frilling tools by the walking beam or by a spudding arm. The walking beam, used on the standard rig, operates like a pump jack dropping drilling string attached to the end over the hole. The spudding arm operates pushing a grooved sheave against the fixed line of the drilling string for rising in hole and then drooping by suddenly releasing the line. The bit is screwed into a hear stem to impart additional weight for cutting. Immediately above this, in the drilling string, are the jars, which permit flexibility in the string and aid in giving a from striking motion. The jars are similar to two huge chain links. The arrangement permits blows to be struck upward so that a stuck bit may be retrieved. The jars may be weighted from above by a sinker, which is a long, cylindrical joint of solid met. The complete sting of drilling tools is surmounted by a socket to which is attached the drilling line.

Secondary recovery

The amount of oil originally in the reservoir which is not recoverable by natural recover mechanisms and by ordinary pumping methods is considerable. It is estimated the amount ranges from 15 to 75 %, depending upon the type of natural recovery mechanism and other factors. It is possible to recover a large part of the oil in the reservoir by secondary recovery methods. Secondary recovery is the recovery of oil and gas by any method, such as artificial flowing or pumping that may be employed through the joint use of two or more wells. Liquids or gases are injected into the common reservoir through one or more injection wells, and the oil and gas are produced through other wells by flowing or pumping. The secondary recovery method most commonly employed at the present time is water flooding.

Water flooding

Water flooding is the most efficient method of secondary recovery if structural and sand conditions are favorable. The secondary source of energy is water under pressure. The water, which is injected into the reservoir under pressure, operates essentially as a flushing agent pushing the oil ahead of it. Water flooding operations have been very successful in certain fields. The structure of the areas should be gently dipping and without faults. Permeability should be uniform and the reservoir rock continuous. Experiments have shown that that a residual oil content of from 15 to 25% will remain in the reservoir sand after is has been wetted by water, as in a water flooding operation. It is possible therefore to determine by a through study of cores the approximate amount of oil which can be recovered by water, flooding. An additional recovery as large as that obtained during natural flow is possible if the connate water saturations are high.

Pressure maintenance

The retention of pressure in a reservoir will tend to preserve the desirable original physical characteristics of the oil with resulting beneficial effect upon its recovery. In some fields the pressure is retained by an effective water drive. In gas cup drive fields and dissolved gas drive fields there is a gradual loss in pressure resulting in high gas - oil rations & a loss in oil recovery. The common methods of pressure maintenance are water injection and gas injection into the reservoir. The pressure is held as near as possible to the original reservoir pressure.

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